Tilly: Philosophy of Values, Wendelban and Ogon

Some neo-Kantian philosophical systems regard value as the ultimate ontological category; they explain reality in terms of the supreme good: the world must fundamentally be the kind of thing that requires ethics, aesthetics, and logical consciousness as ideals. In Kant's view, the universe is essentially what moral consciousness implies—the universe it should be: the ontological world must be a spiritual realm, a kingdom of purpose, a free, rational community, where everyone aspires to this union. Fichte's worldview is similar to this, and so is Lotzell, who is guided by the concept of goodness: we cannot conceive of a world that is not based on goodness. Many people believe that introducing the concept of goodness into metaphysics deprives metaphysics of the scientific character. Philosophy, they argue, is the work of theoretical reason; its task is to provide reality with an explanation free from the demands of human morality, aesthetics, or religious nature. Our universe should not be viewed according to our desires, nor should we be seen according to what it is, but according to what it is. In contrast to this scientific and rationalist view, the philosophers of value point out that the desire for reason and truth, the need for unity and consistency, is in itself the pursuit of what things should be; likewise, here we are driven by ideals: to conceive reality as a chaos that offends our love of order and harmony, our ideal of perfection, or our desire for beauty. Thus, they argue, logical impulses do not have priority over other needs of our nature, and that any philosophical system cannot be sufficient if all these needs are not treated fairly.

Wendelban (1848–1915; Overture, 3rd edition, 1907; History and Natural Sciences, 3rd edition, 1904; Free Will, 2nd edition, 1905; Truth-Seeking Will, 1909) was influenced by Kant and Fichte, who completed a philosophical system centered on values. In his view, philosophy is the science of universal value, which studies the principles of absolute value judgments—logical, ethical, and aesthetic judgments—but all other scientific judgments contain theoretical judgments. There is a fundamental difference between these two propositions: "This thing is white" and "This thing is good." In the former proposition we assert a property which belongs to the content of the object presented; in the latter proposition we assert a relation which points to a consciousness that sets an end. The validity of logical axioms, moral laws, and aesthetic laws cannot be proven; for their truth depends on an end that must be set first as an ideal of our thoughts, emotions, or wills. Therefore, if you pursue truth, you must acknowledge the validity of the principles of thought; if you believe that there is an absolute standard of right and wrong, you must acknowledge the validity of certain moral norms; if beauty is not merely subjective satisfaction, you must acknowledge universal aesthetic norms. All these axioms are norms, and their validity is based on the premise that thought has the purpose of truth, will for good, and emotion for beauty—all in a universally acceptable form. Faith in universal ends is a prerequisite for the critical method; without this belief, critical philosophy is meaningless.

In this way, the laws of logic are the tools of the truth-seeking will. However, it cannot be understood in a pragmatic sense as usefulness as truth; truth is not derived from the will, but from things themselves, and is therefore not arbitrary. Wendelban distinguishes between the natural sciences and the historical sciences or historical events: the natural sciences deal with the constant, abstract, and universal, and study the laws, and are therefore "universally legislative"; the scientific study of history is the individual, concrete, unique, and novel, and therefore "concretely descriptive".

The same view appeared in H. Rickert (The Limits of Conceptual Composition in The Natural Sciences, 2nd Edition, 1913; Cultural Science and Natural Sciences, 2nd Edition, 1910) and in the works of H. Münsterberg (Psychology and Life, 1899; Eternal Life, 1905; Science and Idealism, 1906; Eternal Values, 1909). Dilthey (Introduction to the Spiritual Sciences, 1883) emphasized the uniqueness of "spiritual" science from "natural" science. We must study the relationships, methods, and premises of the spiritual sciences; by reflecting on the manifestations of the spirit in psychology and history, we gain knowledge of reality, values, standards, and purpose. However, metaphysics as a relation to reality, value, and purpose is impossible. Psychoscience is based on an analytical and descriptive teleological psychology that includes general psychology, comparative psychology, and socio-historical psychology.

Otto (1846-1926) completed a metaphysical system that sought to rationalize humanistic values and logical reason, and succeeded in arousing interest in ethical idealism outside many countries and academic circles.

His books include Contemporary Trends of Thought, 1909 (Booth translates as "The Main Tide of Modern Thought"), the first edition of which is from 1878, "The History and Criticism of Contemporary Basic Ideas"; "The View of Life of the Great Thinkers", translated by Hough and Gibson in 1890; "Struggle toward the Connotation of Spiritual Life", 1896; "The Value and Meaning of Life", in 1907, Boyce Gibson translated as "The Value and Meaning of Life"; The Principle of a New Outlook on Life", 1907, translated by Widgery as The Foundations and Ideals of Life; Introduction to the Philosophy of Spiritual Life, 1908 by Pogson as Spiritual Life; Ethics and Modern Thought, 1913. For his research writings, see Boyce Gibson's Philosophy of Life; Booth's Ohon: His Philosophy and Influences; and A.J. Jones' Orgon: A Philosophy of Life.

Neither naturalism nor rationalism can give a full explanation to reality; the former presupposes the spiritual world in a tacit way, which is negated by the principles of naturalism; and the latter can never bring experience into agreement with logical thought. The spiritual desire for infinity and its manifestation in humanity and history suggests the existence of a spiritual process of the universe, an understandable independent world on the other side, which is the source of spiritual life for all individuals. Human beings experience in themselves a spirit of freedom and self-initiative: a self-evident fact or act, which we cannot prove through deduction, but can only be understood in the present moment. In terms of the essence of man, he transcends history; he is imperfect, but pursues perfection, and only then is man a historical existence. Spiritual life is either a by-product phenomenon of material nature or an independent totality and encyclopedia, the source of all beings. If man is merely an accident in nature, he is meaningless; all the supreme good things that exist among man are nothing but illusions, and the universe will be an irrational universe. What religion strives for is not the happiness of mankind, but the preservation of the authentic spiritual life on the basis of humanity. The stark contrast between the actual situation in which man finds himself and the spiritual gifts possessed by man inspires his deep conviction that there is a higher power in man himself. Human beings yearn for love and truth, for living an authentic life and not just floating with the tide of phenomena, for which we can never eradicate from our hearts. Without the infinite power that moves among human beings, then human beings' endless struggles and impulsive pursuits of autonomous activity, present understanding, and infinity cannot be understood. If there is no transcendental world, the spiritual life will be torn to pieces, thus losing its inner reality. Idealistic pantheism originated from humanity's desire for a higher world.

Life in the universe forms the basis of all existence—including human history, human consciousness, and nature itself. The cosmic process evolves from inorganic to organic, from nature to mind, and from the natural mind–life to spiritual life; in this evolution towards independence and self-actualization, the world begins to become conscious. However, the human personality is not submerged in the cosmic spirit; indeed, it is only within the cosmic spirit and sharing the cosmic spirit that individuality can develop.