Destruction and Rebirth: The Showa Era of Japan (1926-1989), by Ryuhisa Furukawa, Zhejiang People's Publishing House, March 2021.
The characteristics of the era of "everyone together"
During the period of Japan's post-war economic miracle, there are very significant characteristics of the times. One of them is "everyone together", where people work together for economic development.
After the economic level has improved, for the televisions, refrigerators and washing machines that everyone has, they naturally "also" need, and this domestic consumer demand is one of the reasons for the economic miracle. The Tokyo Olympics attracted almost everyone to watch in front of the TV set, and the Osaka World Expo, held in the final period of the economic miracle, also attracted people from all over the country to watch. Another feature of this period was the absence of super idols or leaders who succeeded solely on personal charisma. For example, Eisaku Sato, who served as prime minister for a long time during this period, Tetsuharu Kawakami, who led the Yomiuri Giants to set a record of nine consecutive championships in the Central League of Japanese professional baseball as a coach, Sadaharu Wang, a giant player who has maintained a single-season home run record for many years, and Yuki Yuki Oshiro, the highest ranking force in sumo wrestling, are all types who do not like empty words, but succeed through hard work and hard work. But on the other hand, this social atmosphere is inevitably depressing, and the university disputes that occurred near the end of high economic growth reflect this in a sense.
After the end of the post-war economic miracle, Japanese society once again returned to the atmosphere of "different people". However, this period is different from the occupation period. On the political front, the further development of multi-party and the ongoing strife within the LDP reflect the complexity of popular interests. The emergence of karaoke and convenience stores also shows that people's hobbies are becoming diversified.
As a result, the atmosphere of "different people" emerged after the post-war economic miracle, which was a manifestation of Japan's industrial technology and economic strength to meet the diverse needs of different groups of people. After the end of the post-war economic miracle, Japan still maintained a fairly rapid economic growth, precisely because this economic strength satisfies the "difference between people". The university disputes just mentioned are also a big reason for the shift from "everyone together" to "different people", and only when people are aware of the repressed atmosphere can they pursue diversity through economic development.
However, soon after the end of the Showa period, the Japanese economy bid farewell to a smooth sailing situation, and people had to face a new situation.
Stills from the movie The Taste of Saury (1962).
Surprising economic growth rate
Next, let's look at the overall situation of the economy during this period. Beginning in 1954, the Japanese economy maintained an average annual growth rate of 9.4% over a 20-year period, of which the growth rate exceeded 10% in 8 years and exceeded 10% for five consecutive years from 1966 to 1970. Japan's GROSS DOMESTIC product reached the second highest in the world in 1968, behind the United States, until it was surpassed by China more than 40 years later. None of the Western countries during this period had an economic growth rate of more than 10 per cent. This can indeed be called an economic miracle. Japan's share of world trade rose from 3.1 percent in 1950 to 6.1 percent in 1970, reaching the level of major Western countries. In 1964, Japan joined the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), which at that time was mainly developed countries in Europe and the United States, and Japan's accession to some extent also meant that Japan entered the ranks of developed countries.
During this period, Japan's gross national product actually increased by five times, with the average share price of the Tokyo Stock Exchange in 1954 being 340 yen, exceeding 1,000 yen in 1960, and reaching 4,759 yen in 1973, an increase of nearly 14 times. Riding on the east wind of economic growth, government fiscal expenditure has also increased by 15 times, which is basically in line with the situation of economic development, and it should be said that it is a sound fiscal policy.
The average monthly wage for workers was 21,160 yen in 1954 and rose to 144629 yen in 1973. From 1960 to 1967, it took only 7 years for the salary to double. According to the ILO's "Spring Bucket" (i.e., campaign to raise wages and improve working conditions) around February of each year, from 1964 to 1974, the annual wage increase of large enterprises was more than 10%, of which it reached 15% in 1969, 20% in 1973, and 33% in 1974. Although the consumer price index rose from 649.7 in 1954 to 1551.9 in 1973, it was still far below the increase in people's wages, so people's purchasing power naturally increased a lot.
Japan's population was 88 million in 1954, more than 100 million in 1967, and 109 million in 1973. In 1950, the average life expectancy of Japanese men was about 60 years, and in 1970 it reached 70 years, while the average life expectancy of women increased from 63 to 75 years during the same period.
In 1950, 49% of the population was engaged in the primary sector, 22 per cent in the secondary sector and 30 per cent in the tertiary sector. By 1970, only 19 percent of the workforce was engaged in the primary sector, 34 percent in the secondary sector, and 47 percent in the tertiary sector. The total output value of various industries increased by three times, but the proportion of the output value of the primary industry fell from 23% in 1955 to 6.6% in 1975. It can be said that Japan transformed from an agricultural country to an industrial country during this period.
……
If you want to cite some events as a symbol of a period of rapid economic growth, then the official opening of the Tokaido Shinkansen in October 1964, the hosting of the Tokyo Olympic Games, and the Osaka World Expo in March 1970 should be on the list.
Tokaido Shinkansen
As we mentioned in Chapter 4, the Japanese government began construction of the Tokaido Shinkansen in October 1958 and is scheduled to be operational in 1964. Some of the land had already been acquired in the pre-war Shinkansen plan, and some tunnels had been completed, but some difficulties were encountered in acquiring new construction land. The technical staff of the National Railways combined various technologies that had matured to create a new type of train for use on the Shinkansen. In the new train experiment conducted in August 1963, it ran at a speed of 256 km / h, making it the fastest train at that time.
On October 1, 1964, the Tokaido Shinkansen began running between Tokyo Station and Shin-Osaka Station. The ultra-limited express train "Hikari", which stops only at Nagoya one stop, runs 14 round-trips and the "Echo" runs 12 round-trips. Because the acquisition of land on some sections of the road was not smooth, the train could only slow down, and the original "light" took 4 hours to complete the journey, and by November 1965, this time was shortened to 3 hours and 10 minutes. According to the timetable issued by the Transportation Corporation at the time, taking the "Hikari" second class, which is today's Shinkansen ordinary bus, from Tokyo to Osaka costs 1,300 yen for a limited express fare, plus a ticket fee of 1,180 yen, for a total of 2,480 yen. At that time, it took about 1 hour and 20 minutes to fly from Tokyo to Osaka, and the cost was 6,000 yen, plus the time and fee to get to the airport. The "Echo" that runs on the original Tokaido Line costs 800 yen, and the ticket is not much cheaper than the Shinkansen. For those who travel to Tokyo or Osaka to run errands and want to go home after they are done, the Shinkansen was a very cost-effective option at that time.
At that time, there were also voices of doubt about the construction of the Tokaido Shinkansen, believing that the future would be the era of airplanes and automobiles. However, as soon as the Shinkansen was opened, it was a great success, and the number of trains increased. When the Expo arrived in Osaka, the Shinkansen train also expanded the original 12-car train to a 16-car train. The success of the Tokaido Shinkansen has led to the construction of Shinkansen in many other parts of Japan, but from an economic point of view, the return on investment of the Shinkansen in other regions is not as good as that of the Tokaido Shinkansen, and it may also cause the original railway to fall into a loss. In recent years, "mini-Shinkansen" has begun to appear that retrofit the original line and then put into operation with Shinkansen vehicles.
In order to improve the traffic environment, the construction of highways is also underway. Construction of the Meishin Expressway from Nagoya to Kobe began in 1957. Construction began in 1962 on the Tomei Expressway and the Chuo Expressway, which connects Tokyo and Nagoya through the Chubu Mountains, along the Pacific side of Honshu Island. In 1963, the Nizaki to Kurito section of the Meijin Expressway was officially opened to traffic, becoming the earliest expressway in Japan. In September 1964, the Entire Meijin Expressway was opened to traffic, and five years later, the Tomei Expressway was completed and put into use.
Since then, the length of highways built every year has been 200-250 kilometers, and the 7600 kilometers of highways originally planned by the government have been completed and further extended. When the Tomei Expressway opened to traffic, newspapers predicted that an increase in road traffic would lead to a revolution in logistics. The current convenient courier service is undoubtedly due to the development of highways. Not only express delivery, but also a large number of frequent road transport with the development of highways have brought great convenience to the social economy and our daily life in many aspects.
1964 Tokyo Olympics
As we mentioned earlier, although Tokyo won the right to host the 1940 Olympic Games in 1936, due to the impact of the war, it had to give up hosting the Olympic Games in June 1938. After Japan regained sovereignty in 1952, Tokyo again began to seek to host the Olympic Games, and finally succeeded in hosting the 1964 Olympic Games in 1959. Predicting that the Olympics would bring 130,000 foreign tourists, Tokyo immediately began construction of related infrastructure.
The National Arena in the Outer Garden of Meiji Jingu Shrine was remodeled as the main stadium, while Yoyogi, which was once occupied by the U.S. military to build dormitories, was used to build the Olympic Village. Komazawa Park, which was designated as the main venue for the 1940 Olympic Games, also built an athletics venue at this time. Haneda Airport was expanded, and roads in Tokyo were renovated, with new or extended trunk roads such as Loop Line 7, Yamanote Road, and Komazawa Road. In addition, the Capital Expressway, which connects Haneda Airport to various venues in Tokyo, and a monorail from Haneda Airport to the city center, have been constructed.
High-end hotels for foreign tourists, such as the Okura Hotel and the New Otani Hotel, were also completed at this time. At that time, the Battalion Subway, the Hibiya Line of the Current Tokyo Metro and the Shinkansen mentioned in the previous section, were also built with consideration for the Olympic Games. Projects directly related to the Olympic Games cost about 30 billion yen, and if related projects such as the Shinkansen are also included, the total investment in the Olympic Games is as high as 1 trillion yen. In 1963, construction sites related to the Olympic Games could be seen everywhere in Tokyo, and the economic boom of this period was called the "Olympic boom".
On October 10, 1964, the Olympic flame was lit for the first time in Asia, and more than 5,000 athletes from 94 countries participated in the Tokyo Olympic Games. NHK broadcast the ratings of competitions such as gymnastics and women's volleyball, and there is no doubt that many Japanese people at that time watched the Olympic Games on TV. On October 24, the Tokyo Olympic Games came to an end, and the Japanese sports delegation won 16 gold medals in men's weightlifting, judo, and women's volleyball, ranking third in the world after the United States and the Soviet Union. In November, the second Paralympic Games were held at the same venue.
On October 10, 1964, the opening ceremony of the Tokyo Olympic Games.
The 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo were also held in Asia for the first time. Japanese athlete Yukio Kasatani won the gold medal in the men's ski jumping event, the first time an Asian athlete has won a gold medal at the Winter Olympics. Taking the Winter Olympics as an opportunity, Sapporo also accelerated the construction of infrastructure and opened a subway.
But the 130,000 foreign tourists initially predicted for the Tokyo Olympics ended up coming with only 30,000. Whether it is the hospitality industry or retail, the hope of making a big profit has been disappointed. At this time, the penetration rate of television sets has reached 80%, and the home appliance industry has also suffered a trough. After the Tokyo Olympics, economic growth fell to 5.7 percent in 1965, the second-to-last rate of growth in Japan's postwar period of high economic growth. However, the Tokyo Olympics brought many new buildings to Tokyo, many wide trunk roads, the Capital Expressway and monorails that run between the buildings, which together constitute the landscape of Tokyo during the period of rapid economic growth. In this sense, the Tokyo Olympics were a symbol of japan's economic development during this period.
Osaka World Expo
In 1963, Japan ratified the Convention on International Exhibitions, officially joined the Bureau of International Exhibitions, and began to seek to host the World Exposition in Japan. Because Tokyo will host the Olympic Games the following year, it was decided to host the World Expo in Osaka in coordination with the government and economic circles. In 1965, the Japan World Exposition Association, which was formed by the government, the economic community, and local governments, began preparations for the World Expo with the goal of promoting further economic development. In March 1970, the Osaka World Expo opened in the senri hills north of Osaka, and the 183-day expo closed in September, during which a total of 77 countries participated in the Expo with the theme of "Human Progress and Coordination". In addition to the Host Japan Pavilion, there are 58 foreign pavilions, 33 corporate pavilions, and playgrounds.
There are three types of tickets: adult tickets of 800 yen, youth tickets of 600 yen (15-22 years old), and children of 400 yen. The Osaka World Expo was originally expected to reach a maximum of 600,000 visitors a day, and 50 million visitors will be received during the Expo. However, due to summer vacation and other reasons, the number of visitors to visit far exceeded expectations, eventually reaching 64.22 million, including 1.7 million foreign visitors, and the Osaka World Expo can be said to have been a complete success. Of course, many of the 64.22 million visitors bought tickets multiple times, and if not calculated by number, there are about 26 million viewers. This means that among the Japanese at that time, 1 in 4 people went to Osaka to watch the Expo. The State Railways opened a number of long-distance passenger trains for the Expo, transporting a total of 22 million passengers, of which the Shinkansen transported 10 million passengers. The Expo attracted so many visitors that it was unprecedented.
Osaka World Expo venue.
The theme of "coordination" of the World Expo implies the reflection on the problem of public nuisance at that time, and in the pavilions of the Nordic countries, it also directly touches on the issue of public nuisance. We'll elaborate on this later. Attention was more on another theme, "progress," and in the pavilions where rockets and spaceships were displayed in the United States and the Soviet Union, tourists were so woven that there were large numbers of spectators queuing up almost every day to wait for admission. According to newspaper reports at the time, most people waited in line for too long and did not have a good view of the exhibition after entering the venue. Compared with the exhibition, people enjoy a lively atmosphere. The Osaka World Expo, in terms of both the number of visitors and the content of the exhibition, can be called the most brilliant national event at the end of Japan's rapid economic growth period.
The Japanese economy has been able to maintain 20 years of rapid growth, mainly due to the following points: on the one hand, the government has built a sound infrastructure through public investment, and promoted the growth of consumption and investment through tax cuts and interest rate cuts; on the other hand, enterprises have made full use of the technologies accumulated before and during the war, as well as actively imported advanced industrial technologies from abroad, and carried out extensive technological innovation and equipment investment, which not only greatly increased the export volume of fiber products, ships and automobiles, but also successfully allowed television sets and refrigerators Durable household appliances represented by washing machines can enter ordinary families in Japan at low prices. A large number of consumers buy these products, so that the income of enterprises rises, and the income of enterprise employees is also improved, which further stimulates consumption and forms a virtuous circle of the economy. But when most people had these very durable products, the cycle was interrupted, and Japan's economic miracle finally came to an end in 1971.
Original author |[Sun] Takahisa Furukawa
Excerpt and editor| Li Yongbo
Introduction Proofreader | Li Shihui