Linda Volk-Simon/Text;
This year marks the 500th anniversary of Raphael's death, and although the commemorative exhibitions and activities of various museums have been disrupted due to the epidemic, it has not affected the world's attention to him. In fact, since Raphael was buried in the Pantheon of Rome in 1520, his story has been continuously interpreted. In 1833, the opening of the Raphael Mausoleum of the Pantheon led to the study of various disciplines such as phrenology.
The surging news learned that the University of Rome II recently restored Raphael's appearance with 3D technology. However, looks are only one level, and behind the fresh and handsome looks, what is the real Raphael? Combining disparate biographical sources, Raphael's image is richer and more complex than the gospel portraits of past centuries. In addition to his personable, kind and generous evaluation, he is also ambitious, talented, competitive, and even has hidden corners of human nature.
Raphael's self-portrait and the 3D facial reconstruction completed by the University of Rome II are compared.
Shortly after 10 p.m. on April 6, 1520, Raphael, one of the three masters of the Renaissance, died at the age of 37. In the papal court of the time, there were many deeply shocked people who interpreted the news of his death, some of whom seized on the special meaning of this date (this day is Good Friday), believing that just as Jesus suffered, the gods were deeply saddened, causing the walls of the Vatican Palace to burst. At Raphael's funeral, his body was also used to contact Jesus when he lay on a coffin under his last work, The Transfiguration. The picture of Jesus rising from darkness with a divine light must have felt that this was a portrayal of the artist himself, raphael's similarity with God has been commented upon throughout his life. According to his wishes, Raphael's body was buried in the Pantheon, which became the most symbolic resonance space in Rome. His funeral was sanctified by the humanist Celio Calcagnini (1479-1541), who gave him the title of "prince of painters" during Raphael's lifetime.
Raphael, The Apparition, 1518–1520), Vatican Museums
In the centuries after Raphael's death, the cult of raphael grew, and his art was promoted in academies throughout Europe and reverently embraced by painters of the Ingres level. In September 1833, Raphael's tomb was opened under a solemn ceremony.
According to carlo falconieri, the architect who witnessed the event, the whole of Rome is talking about it. Like an unprecedented exhibition, the public can purchase tickets to the Pantheon to see Raphael's remains, and more than 3,000 people lined up to see the "exhibits" in the glass cabinets in the six days before the reburiage.
In the mid-16th century, the biographer Giorgio vasari described Raphael in the orthodox view, who was amiable, polite, and sweet-hearted, like an angel. Although this portrayal has literary rhetorical implications, it certainly contains elements of truth. Raphael's father, Giovanni Santi, a court artist of the Duke of Urbino, once painted Raphael as an angel standing next to the Virgin and the Child. In 1504, Raphael's early patrons praised his gentlemanliness in a letter of introduction to the Head of state of the Republic of Florence (a city-state in medieval Italy, 1115-1532) (although the authenticity of this letter was questioned, it is now accepted by most scholars). A few years later, Raphael had unprecedented success in Rome, and fame brought orders and day-to-day work, and even so, he maintained his demeanor—at least until he was provoked: a stack of correspondence that lasted more than three years recorded the tireless efforts of Alfonso d'este, Duke of Ferrara, to obtain a painting that Raphael had promised him earlier, but ultimately in vain. The Duke's agent repeatedly reminded Raphael of his duties as a painter. But the response received was obnoxiously humble and hollow. Eventually, apparent obedience could not be sustained, and Raphael became increasingly annoyed, and he simply avoided the unpopular agent. It is said that Alfonso sternly warned Raphael that he had no right to ignore the duke as if he were a commoner, but we do not know whether he issued such a warning.
Francesco diofebi, Pantheon opens Raphael's tomb, 1833 (1836), collection of the Torvalsen Museum in Copenhagen
Compared to the sweetness and brightness of Raphael's two-dimensional images, the signals emitted by the gaps in his armor are more complex. Tending to a non-cult perspective, portraying it more subtly, may be able to show a more accurate portrayal.
There is no doubt that Raphael was indeed an amiable and sociable man, and was genuinely liked and loved by many friends, companions and followers. At the same time, he is ambitious, competitive, intriguing, and at times ruthless in his single-minded climb to the top —unattractive aspects of his personality that are different from past "human designs" have recently become the focus of attention. If some of the early anecdotes are credible, it can be seen that Raphael was not joking, but carried a quick wit and a witty sense of humor.
Although he was engaged to a cardinal's niece for a long time, he managed to avoid marriage. At the same time, he arranged the marriage of his two disciples and established a closer family relationship beyond the studio. He acquired a huge fortune, allowing him to invest in real estate and lend money to friends and acquaintances. Although his labor was well paid, there were also some signs of suspicious and shady transactions in the records of the time.
On the occasion of the 500th anniversary of Raphael's death, re-screening documents and other evidence from his lifetime in order to "resurrect" the more complex Raphael, the whole work begins with his remains in the Pantheon:
In 1833, excavations of Raphael's remains originated in rome at the Accademia di San Luca, which holds the skull of a man long considered the "King of Painters." In 1781 Goethe saw this highly revered "holy relic" in Rome, comparing it to a "beautifully polished shell". The "King of Painters" skull was molded with multiple plaster casts (Goethe himself had one), and one in London was subject to rigorous phrenological analysis.
In the 1820s, William Scott, president of the Society of Phrenology, presented the results of the survey in a lecture. He painted the shape and size of Raphael's skull based on the skull of the "King of Painters", which was associated with his character and talent. However, the study was questioned because of the skull itself, and persistent skepticism about whether the skull belonged to Raphael also contributed to the opening of Raphael's mausoleum in the 19th century. According to the written records of several witnesses at the time and the painter Vincenzo Camuccini (1771-1844) of the painting reproduction of the process of opening, it is confirmed that Raphael's skeleton (including the skull) was well preserved when it was opened.
The skeleton of Raphael's tomb when it was opened, painted after Giambattista Borani Vincenzo Cappuccini, circa 1833, in the collection of the Torvalsen Museum in Copenhagen
This rare opportunity to study Raphael through the remains was naturally not wasted, and a large number of detailed observations remained at that time. He was less than 5 feet tall, with a slender neck, slender arms and chest, and strong legs and feet; teeth intact; slightly deformed bones of his thumb and index finger, presumably due to long-term paintings; and the narrow coffin suggested that he was slender. But to the surprise of observers at the time, anatomically, its throat was unusually large, which meant that his voice was loud. The remains do not contradict descriptions of Raphael (including his self-portraits), which prove that he possessed a pleasant, elegant appearance. Collaborator Giovanni da Udine depicts Raphael's working state in stucco reliefs in his workshop, reminiscent of where he stood, still making a sound in the midst of the noise.
Giovanni da Udine depicts a scene of Raphael in a workshop in fresco relief, the Vatican City of Pontivic Palace
If Raphael's remains make people imagine his physical resurrection, why do they say nothing about the souls who inhabit it? This may be because fragments of his career and life have been preserved in earlier sources. A cursory survey of Raphael's career trajectory shows that in addition to his amiability, there are also ambitions and unwavering ambitions. In Umbria, Raphael surpassed his rivals and perfectly imitated his teacher, Pietro Perugino (circa 1446-1523), the most eminent Italian painter of the time, but after moving to Florence to see michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci's innovations, he immediately updated his style, leaving a confused Perugino helpless to become obsolete. In Florence, his friendliness opened the gap between the closed art circle and the wealthy patrons. But his friend in Florence, the architect Baccio d'Agnolo, later saw Raphael as his "main enemy," in part because raphael was absent from Florence for a long time, but parachuted in a competition for the design of the façade of the church of San Lorenzo.
In 1508, Raphael was recalled to Rome by Pope Julius II to participate in the creation of frescoes in the Vatican Palace, and before his arrival, other painters had already begun to work, but due to Raphael's exceptionally good work, the painters who were already working here were dismissed. During this period, Raphael painted classics representing the Renaissance era, such as The Controversy of the Sacraments and the Academy of Athens, while the Hall of Constantine, the Hall of Iliodoro, the Hall of Signature and the Hall of Fire of Borgo in the Vatican Palace later had a common name, the Raphael Room.
Interior view of the signature hall of the Vatican Palace
The architect Bramante assisted Raphael in obtaining the privilege of secretly visiting the Sistine Chapel without Michelangelo's permission and seeing the unfinished frescoes. The encounter was transformative for Raphael. His 1512 work Isaiah the Prophet unabashedly interprets the influence of the Sistine Chapel frescoes on himself, but for an angry Michelangelo, it was an unforgivable violation. The style he had forged throughout his life of bitter lamentation was "stolen" by Raphael.
Michelangelo, The Prophet Isaiah, Frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, Vatican, 1509
Raphael, The Prophet Isaiah, 1511-1512, Church of St. Augustus, Rome
From then until his death, Raphael was a painter of the Pope. Under julius' successor, Leo X, his remit expanded to include architecture (after Bramante's death, he was appointed architect of St. Peter's Basilica), antiquities, and almost all adventures of artistic significance in Rome. However, his unparalleled success did not suppress his desire to compete, perhaps precisely because it ensured Raphael's hegemony. In 1520, an informant of Isabella d'Este (Marquise of Mantua, female leader of the Italian Renaissance) revealed that Raphael had obstructed a young follower from Florence, Michelangelo, from seeking work in Rome, and although the identity of this unfortunate follower is not recorded, there is no doubt that Michelangelo's follower and agent in Rome, Sebastiano del piombo, 1485-1547) triggered Raphael's competitive instincts. In his letter to Michelangelo, Sebastian implicitly refers to "principe de la sinagoga", which, while the meaning of the text is disputed, should be a code word. In the letter, Raphael was the object of ridicule, while the code word may have meant the description of the workshop run by Raphael as an indestructible "cabal."
When they were given a double commission, face-to-face competition for a pair of giant altarpieces at the Narbonne cathedral, granted by Cardinal Giulio de ' medici, Raphael went to great lengths to set the way for Sebastian. The message was conveyed in a letter to the absent Michelangelo in which a loyal follower informed Michelangelo of what had happened in Rome, claiming that Raphael had done everything in his power to stop Sebastian, but did not reveal the specifics of the ruse. But Sebastian did not flinch, and as he began his work, he carefully guarded Against Raphael, who had not yet written, to prevent him from spying on his progress. While Sebastian planned to install the finished work in Rome to maximize its merits, Raphael tried to intervene in his attempts to frame it in France, but his sabotage failed.
However, raphael did not have similar hostility in his dealings with his assistants and collaborators, and there was also "fatherly love". Vasari mentions this many times in his biographies of Raphael and his main disciples, the painters Giulio Romano, Gianfrancesco Penni and Perino del vaga, and the sculptor Lorenzetto: Raphael loved each of them as much as he loved his own son, and they reciprocated with filial piety. But there is no evidence that Raphael interfered in their private lives as often as his parents, although occasionally he also acted as a matchmaker. Raphael facilitated the marriage of Lorenzo to Giulio Romano's sister, and after a long period of preparation, they married in 1523. From these fragments, it can be seen that Raphael's workshop was not only in strict commercial operation, but raphael and his collaborators also became part of each other's private lives. Raphael's printmaker Marcantonio raimondi and painter and servant Baviero de'caroccio also attest to this. Il Bavila abrasive the paint for Raphael, gilded the frames, and was also a distributor of his prints, and in November 1515 he also purchased the house on Raphael's behalf and helped take care of his mistress after Raphael's death. At least three followers, including Giulio Romano, named his son Raphael.
Raphael, Self-Portrait, 1506, Uffizi Gallery Collection
Real estate accounted for a significant proportion of Raphael's scarce non-working hours and abundant economic resources. By 1517 he owned the palazzo caprini (designed by Bramante) on the fashionable Borgo nuovo, in May 1518 he completed the transaction of land near the Colosseum (also his artist friend who completed the transaction on his behalf); on March 24, 1520, two weeks before his accidental death, he bought a piece of land on via giulia, presumably, Raphael planned to use his expertise in flue to participate in the design and construction of a magnificent new palace. In addition to owning property, Raphael held a number of salaried public offices, which enriched his already substantial income while bringing him social status and a series of ancillary rights (such as learning that he owned horses through records of buying hay), which also made him generous enough to his friends. At least two records show him lending money to his artist friends, and neither of the debtors paid it back.
But Sebastian believes that not all of Raphael's financial dealings are justified. In July 1518, in a letter to Michelangelo, he claimed that Raphael, while pouring oil from the pope's treasury, demanded 3 gold coins a day from the pope. But given the conflict between Sebastian and Raphael, the allegation was dismissed as defamation. But Vasari mentions that the Papal Apartments in the Vatican Palace were built with holes (or supposedly dark spaces) that Raphael ordered to store barrels and carriages. Does Vasari's claim imply that this was a temporary hiding place for Raphael's illegal possession of papal belongings, and does this confirm the credibility of Sebastian's claims? Or it's still slightly far-fetched. But at least that raises doubts about cutting corners. Because Vasari also said that because of these holes, the wall structure weakened and needed to be reinforced again. But is there a dark deal, and is there a hint of "impunity"? Now it can only be guessed and imagined, but the point is that Raphael did not overstep at that time.
Since then, Raphael's "black material" has grown, mocking the two German cardinals; refuting in insulting ways that a lady questioned the excessive eroticism of the mythological frescoes he had created for the banker Agostino Chigi's villa. Giulio Romano is believed to be the initiator of Raphael's erotic images, and he completely tore the mythical disguise of innocence. It is said that the original manuscript of the 16 pornographic prints "i modi" printed by Marcantonio Remendi came from the creation of Giulio Romano. This pornographic album appeared in 1524 and caused an uproar in Rome, when Raphael had died. But cesare da sesto, a painter who visited Raphael's studio, believed that the painter's work came from life (Vasari also attributed Raphael's untimely death to the high fever after overindulgence), and some of Raphael's paintings may contain his obsession and love for his mistress Margherita Luti (also known as "la fornarina"), so much so that when working for Agostino Kigi's villa, Need the company of Margarita Luti.
Raphael, Portrait of a Young Woman (La Fornarina), 1518-1521
Combining these very different biographical sources, Raphael's image is richer and more complex than the gospel portraits of past centuries. Raphael was undoubtedly a sweet, personable, kind and generous man, but he was also ambitious, talented, competitive, and sometimes even a little immoral. In important times, he would show an amiable attitude because of his patron status or the affection of his friends, but when faced with the harsh demands imposed on him, he might become irritable and prickly, so much so that Alfonso Dest's agents, even if careful, were still fruitless. Although the analysis of Raphael's susceptibility to artistic depression is vulgar, it is not entirely untrue. As Marcantoño Remendi captured in his etched print Portrait of Raphael: alone, contemplative, overworked (with blank canvases, palettes and paint pots waiting for him). For whatever reason, Raphael lived only 8 days after his illness, and he calmly accepted the final ceremony and arranged the aftermath. The painter commissioned his faithful servant Il Baviella to take care of his mistress Margarita Luti (leaving her enough money) to give most of the contents of the studio to his beloved disciples Giulio Romano and Gian Francisco Penni. According to his will, Raphael was buried in the Pantheon. The funeral was solemn, and on his marble tombstone, Pietro Bembo wrote an epitaph: "Raphael rests in peace here." Before he died, nature felt the fear of defeat; and when he died, nature feared him to die. ”
Marcantoño Remondi, Portrait of Raphael, 1517-1519, Los Angeles County Museum of Art
More than 300 years later, the tomb of Raphael in the Pantheon was opened, and johann friedrich overbeck, a German Nazarene painter who attended the opening ceremony at the time, wrote that he was so moved that "when the body of this outstanding painter was opened, a chill enveloped me". At the same time he said, "The spirit of this great painter is buried deeper than his bones." "Today, Raphael's remains are still buried deep, but 500 years after his death, is his spirit closer to us?"
Note: This article is compiled from the July/August 2020 issue of Apollo Magazine, Linda Wolk-Simon, "Is Raphael the Saint Described?" 》
Editor-in-Charge: Weihua Gu
Proofreader: Yan Zhang