The Battle of Gaugamela, also known as the Battle of Gaugamela, the Battle of Gaugamela, or the Battle of Gaugamela, was a battle fought between the Macedonian Empire and the Persian Empire on October 1, 331 BC in the Gaugamela region north of Babylon (present-day Baghdad). Both sides invested huge troops in this battle, the Macedonian Empire poured more than 40,000 troops, and the Persian Empire poured out more than 200,000 troops throughout the country. Although the Persian Empire was well prepared before the war, in the heroic battle of the Macedonian army and the correct command of Alexander the Great, the Persian Empire was defeated with tens of thousands of casualties, and the monarch Darius III was killed after the war. The Macedonian Empire occupied all of the Persian Empire, and the Persian Empire collapsed.
1. Background of the campaign
Beginning in 334 BC, Alexander led his allied Macedonian-Greek army to Asia, embarking on an unprecedented expedition. In just two years, control of all of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt was taken from the Persian Empire. The Macedonians, who were at the heart of the conquest, were effectively leading a national alliance of members of pan-Hellenistic culture. In addition to the headquarters of the Kingdom of Macedonia, it also included the northern Greek regions that depended on them and a large area of the Thracian tribes.
Alexander's arrival changed much of Asia's history
In order to deal with Alexander's troops, Darius III ordered compulsory conscription in the imperial provinces, forming a large infantry force. He also presided over the largest weapons change in the history of the Persian army, with most of the Persian cavalry equipped with scale armor, the javelins used in the past replaced with Greek-style spears, and the infantry replaced with larger, heavier shields.
Darius III also recruited cavalry and war elephants from the Indus Valley, and built and concentrated 200 chariots for great power on the plain battlefield. Although its total military strength could not reach the millions of ancient writers, it was not difficult to maintain a 2:1 advantage over the Macedonians.
The Persian Empire still had enough money to recruit a large army
Classical historians disagreed about the number of Persian troops involved in the Battle of Gaugamela, with Arion believing that there were 40,000 cavalry, 1 million infantry, and 200 chariots; Diodoro believing that there were 200,000 Persian cavalry, 800,000 infantry, and 200 chariots; and the most conservative Kocius believed that there were 200,000 Persian infantry fighting units, 45,000 cavalry, and 200 chariots. However, contemporary opinion is that darius actually had only about 100,000 soldiers.
Darius III learned the lessons of the past and carefully chose the battlefield for the upcoming Armageddon. Gaugamela is located on the east bank of the upper Tigris River, about 300 km north of Babylon, adjacent to the famous Persian Empire Avenue, so logistics can be guaranteed. Gaugamela's landscape is flat, open, slightly undulating sandy land, ideal for cavalry activities. Darius III had the center of the battlefield flattened to facilitate the charge of Persian chariots. He also spent a lot of time training these troops from all over the world to enable them to fight together and defeat the enemy together.
Second, the course of the battle
<h1 class="pgc-h-arrow-right" data-track="27" > the campaign began</h1>
In early September 331 BC, after completely pacifying Egypt, Alexander finally led a large army from northern Syria into the Two Rivers Valley and marched into the Persian hinterland. The purpose of this trip was, of course, the crucial city of Babylon, but it was more important to find the main Persian army directly for a decisive battle.
In 331 BC the Macedonian army crossed the Euphrates River
Alexander now controlled the cities of Memphis, Sardis, damascus, and about 15,000 reinforcements arrived on Alexander's crusade. Alexander's forces had increased before the Battle of Gaugamela, totaling nearly 50,000 men. Of these, 40,000 were infantry, including 18,000 heavy infantry; 7,000 cavalry, including 2,000 Guards cavalry.
Macedonian cavalry under Alexander's command
Alexander was very cautious in choosing the route of his march, and did not immediately move south after crossing the Euphrates River, but continued eastward across the Tigris River and then south along the Kurds, thus avoiding the desert area of the upper Euphrates River. In order to ensure his own logistical supply line, Alexander built 3 cities on the marching route and deployed garrisons. The Macedonian army was followed by Persian light horses along the way, needless to say that it was darius III's reconnaissance unit. The Persian king apparently wanted to lure the enemy deeper, and the Macedonian army crossed the two rivers unharmed without encountering any resistance. Darius III's strategy was quite pragmatic, the Persian army had a hundred thousand people, the consumption of grain and grass was staggering, and the closer to Babylon the less pressure on logistics supply; on the contrary, the Macedonian army attacked farther away, and the deeper it penetrated into the hinterland of the Two Rivers Valley, the greater the pressure on logistics supply.
On September 24, 331 BC, the Macedonian army crossed the Tigris River. In the days that followed, the eerie phenomenon of lunar eclipses caused both sides to suspend the act of war. In ancient times, when celestial signs and eclipses were valued, lunar eclipses were typical ominous omens. Alexander announced the rest of the army to appease the soldiers, and Darius read the results of the Babylonian sacrifices in horror.
On the eve of the great war, Alexander personally led an army to defeat several groups of Persian scouts
From a military point of view, the sudden appearance of a lunar eclipse has given both sides more time to prepare. Darius sent men to constantly level the battlefield of the wasteland called Gaugamela in order to maximize the deployment of troops and facilitate the movement of cavalry and chariots. Alexander was also busy leading elite cavalry to guerrilla warfare, expelling and capturing small Persian reconnaissance forces, and further determining the location of the main Persian army. As an auxiliary force, the allies and reinforcements also built a strong camp after crossing the river, allowing the expeditionary force to have its own "foothold" in an unfamiliar environment. Finally, Alexander did not forget to control a hill that could overlook the future battlefield, and made a detailed assessment of Darius's army.
By the end of September of that year, the Macedonian army continued its advance eastward, pausing on the western side of the Gaugamela Plain after leaving the main camp. Alexander gathered the commanders of all the large and small detachments and announced his plan of deployment for several days. In addition to the conventional deployment of partner cavalry, Guards infantry and spear phalanx regiments, emphasis was placed on strengthening the cover forces on the periphery of the two wings. At the same time, the Allies were placed separately as a second-line reserve to deal with the inevitable enveloping strategy of the Persians.
<h1 class="pgc-h-arrow-right" data-track="40" > the course of the campaign</h1>
At this time, Darius also determined his own battle plan. He would use a large number of chariots and war elephants to disrupt the Macedonian positions, and to encircle both flanks of his opponents at the same time with superior cavalry. Finally, with the elite infantry deployed in the front as a guide, the second-line reinforcements were instigated to surround and annihilate the entire Macedonian main force.
On 30 September, Darius ordered a large army to complete the deployment ahead of schedule. Even if the soldier is required to spend the night in his own combat position, he cannot give his opponent any opportunity to launch a night attack. However, it was this decision that made his idea clear to Alexander.
Persian elite armored cavalry with Macedonian companion cavalry
The Macedonians noted that Darius' Greek mercenaries were so small that they were almost the size of two infantry regiments on their side. Therefore, the right wing where it is located is bound to be the real main direction of attack. On their outer flank, with the exception of light infantry from the Caucasus, they were dominated by elite heavy cavalry from Syria, Cappadocia and Armenia. Together with the replenishment of troops on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea and the Parthian region, it has a strong offensive power. In front of them were 50 rolling chariots spearheading the charge, followed by the Kalyas, Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians, who were good at infantry.
Alexander must have been very concerned about the other side's left-wing deployment, because that would have been Darius's lesson from the Battle of Issus. In addition to the Kaldak infantry, which was modeled after the Greeks, there were numerous cavalry from Persia, Bactria and the Caspian Sea coast. Apparently, the Persian king did not want his left side to be easily breached this time, so he gave the governor Bethus (Besus) a strong force in charge of the command of this wing. A total of 100 rolling chariots were deployed in front of the battle, which obviously had the meaning of directly disrupting the Macedonian elite. Even if you can't defeat your opponent, you can delay as much as possible and buy time for the heavy troops on the right wing.
Darius concentrated 200 rolling chariots on the battlefield of Gaugamela
Finally, in the middle of the road, Darius' personal safety was taken care of by the undead infantry and the royal noble cavalry. In front of them were not only 50 chariots, but also 15 elephants from India. It was only because of his lack of experience in using these behemoths that the Persian king finally decided to leave them all in the rear camp.
Darius III with his personal bodyguards
The biggest flaw in the Persian battle plan was how to control such a large force on a chaotic battlefield. According to the most conservative estimates, its total force size is at least close to 100,000 people. On battlefields separated by miles, the left-center-right armies are all multi-line composed of complex branches of troops. As a result, most of its forces would be out of control after the start of the war. Darius's intention may have been to let the two governors play their own role, and only to make requirements in the overall layout. But it also laid the groundwork for his final failure.
The layout and mode of operation of both sides of the Battle of Gaugamela
The Macedonian army was positioned in accordance with custom. The veteran General Parminho led six dense formations of 15,000 heavily armored infantry to form a central camp, the distance between the phalanxes was quite spacious, so that there was enough space to change the formation; the main force on the left was 2,000 Tesali heavy cavalry, with a battalion of 300 Greek Union heavy cavalry on their right and 1,000 Greek mercenary infantry on the left; Alexander personally led 2,000 Guards cavalry on the right flank, and his left was still 3,000 elite Guards infantry. At the front of the front, Alexander deployed a scattered line of thousands of guerrilla infantry, whose task was to contain the onslaught of Persian chariots. These ranged from the most warlike Agrarian javelins to mountain warriors from other Thracian tribes. They were often flanked by elite archers from Macedonia or Crete.
Thracian javelin bearer who served heavily in the Macedonian army
The length of the Macedonian front was barely equal to that of the Persian central phalanx, while the broad wings of the Persian cavalry formed an encirclement of the Macedonian army, and Alexander deployed 4 battalions of cavalry in the flanks of the two wings with about 1,200 men, light and heavy cavalry accounting for half each, obliquely forming a flank guard line, and the strength was arranged before and after to form a defensive depth. Anticipating that his right flank would be the focus of the Persian army's attack, Alexander reinforced the right flank with 500 archers and 500 javelins. Also about 1 km behind the first line of troops, Alexander deployed a second line of about 15,000 Greek Union infantry, which was particularly arranged facing the rear, apparently in case of a large depth of detour by the Persian cavalry. The deployed Macedonian front took on a hollow trapezoidal formation.
Since darius III's battle sequence was captured by the Macedonian army after the war, classical historical sources left detailed information on the Persian front. Darius III took advantage of the vast battlefield terrain to form a huge array of 8 kilometers long. The Persian king stood in the center on a golden chariot, flanked by 3,000 loyal Janissaries, half in infantry and half on horseback; flanked by 2,000 Greek mercenaries who survived the Battle of Issus; the Persian Central Front, which also included Indian cavalry and thousands of Median archers; and fifty chariots and fifteen Indian war elephants in front of the central front. The Persian generals led their respective forces into two wings, with Bactrian Governor Baisu leading 16,000 cavalry from the Steppes of Central Asia forming the left flank, and Darius III deploying 100 chariots and 2,000 Sethian ironclad cavalry on the left flank front, their targets were clearly the Macedonian right flank of Alexander's commander. The Persian right wing, commanded by the Babylonian governor Mazai, consisted of 16,000 cavalry from Syria, Mesopotamia, and the Iranian plateau, and the right wing was fronted by an assault phalanx of 50 chariots and 2,000 Armenian ironclad cavalry. Babylonian and Arab infantry formed a second front in the rear.
When Alexander commanded the whole army to launch a diagonal maneuver to the right flank, Darius also let his left and right wings begin to attack separately. The 200 vehicles scattered across the three fronts also charged at the immediate target almost simultaneously.
Most of the Persian chariots were not able to approach the Macedonian phalanx forces
But most of the Persian tanks were intercepted halfway through. A small number of survivors were able to approach the phalanx of spears that were maneuvering to the right, but were still scattered by trained soldiers. This was followed by the Greek Allies on the second line, who very easily wiped out all these fish.
But the Persian offensive was much more than that. Bethus, who had long served as governor of Bactria, instigated a large number of eastern cavalry to kill Alexander himself in the vanguard position on the right flank. These elite detachments of horse harnesses quickly crushed the lightly armoured Greek mercenary cavalry and provoked Alexander to send more allies to the battle. The macedonian army's battlefield command system had a clear advantage in such mobile engagements. On the one hand, Alexander had to command the cavalry movement around him, and on the other hand, he could also send troops from other positions to reinforce each other by means of passing orders, blowing trumpets and flags.
As a result, the eastern cavalry, which had previously been fierce, suddenly found themselves suddenly trapped in the tactical trap deployed by their opponents. Not only did more Macedonian Allied cavalry charge at them, but there were also light infantry rushing around to project fire on themselves, and even Greek heavy infantry recruited from the Achaean region for cover. These were alexander's reserves on the outside of the right flank, similar in line with Darius' group division strategy.
But a smaller detachment size not only saves limited troops, but also gives commanders more flexible options.
The Persian eastern cavalry was not able to accomplish its intended objectives
Bethus could only get more cavalry to come forward and put pressure on them, and raid around to a more external position. There, however, they encountered Greek Allied infantry from the second line, and were then blocked by the shield wall of heavy infantry. Thus, the Persian left wing, though it appeared to besiege the Macedonian right flank on the scene, was in fact being driven backwards by the advancing opponent. But because the Persian heavy cavalry was well equipped, the Macedonians had to endure casualties and bloody battles.
On the other side of the battlefield, Mazaias's situation was similar to that of Bethus. A large number of heavily armed cavalry armed to the teeth, under the cover of mounted archers, attempted flank raids. But they were also sniped from long range by Cretan archers and Thracian javelins. Parmanio, a veteran commander of the Macedonian left wing, like mercenary infantry and other Greek cavalry from Athens, kept launching a counterattack against the Persians. Among them, the cavalry from the cities of Thessalius and other cities such as Phalsalus was the most elite. They had a level of cavalry comparable to that of the Macedonian nobility, and they did not fall behind in the confrontation with the powerful enemies in Asia.
The Macedonian cavalry had a great advantage in close combat
As Mazayas continued to extend his flanks, he would also encounter Greek allies who had come to reinforcements from the second front. But they succeeded in suppressing Parmanu, bringing the entire Macedonian left flank to a halt for defense, and the Persian superiority forced macedonian reserves to constantly move to the left to deal with the Persian cavalry. As Alexander's personally restrained right flank continued to advance, a deadly gap was formed between the phalanx infantry in the middle.
Darius, who has always been in the middle of the road, certainly will not miss this great opportunity. He not only sent the Janissaries cavalry and Indian cavalry of the Persian Central Front to break through the gap at high speed, but also began to transfer the infantry that were originally in the second line position in time. The process was bound to be slow, but with both wings attacking at full strength, there were virtually no other cover units around him and the undead infantry. He knew that Alexander was good at flanking raids and did not want this mistake to be seized by his opponents.
Under the two-way containment of Persia, the entire Macedonian army was also cut in two
However, the Persian cavalry that broke through the dense formation did not attack the Macedonian front from behind, but crossed the gap on the left side of the second line of defense at high speed and directly attacked the Macedonian camp. Apparently the Persian Janissaries received a clear order from Darius III to rescue his mother and children at any cost. Alexander's psychological stimulation of Darius III before the war finally worked, and the concern for his relatives really caused the Persian king to lose his mind at a critical moment. The Persian Janissaries, together with the 3,000 elite horsemen sent by mazai, easily dispersed the Thracian infantry guarding the Macedonian camp, and then began to plunder the heavy carriages in search of members of the royal family. The fall of the camp dealt a heavy blow to the morale of the Macedonian officers and men, and Parminio sent someone to ask Alexander how to deal with it, and Alexander replied, "Tell Parminio not to care about the gain or loss of any logistical supplies, if we win, even the Persian camp will belong to us."
Macedonian cavalry and elite infantry in concert
The Macedonian army had never experienced such a bad situation, not only were the two wings encircled by the enemy, the center of the front was broken by the enemy's horses, and even the large battalion was lost to the enemy. The will to resist of the Macedonian officers and soldiers has reached the tipping point of collapse. That's when a miracle happened. According to classical records, a goshawk suddenly flew over the right wing of the Macedonian Front and circled above Alexander's head. Priest Aristand immediately jumped on a warhorse and galloped along the Macedonian front, shouting, "Look at that circling eagle, this is a sign of Macedonian victory!" The already crumbling Macedonian front suddenly stiffened, and the Greek Union infantry of the second line even successfully counterattacked the battalion, driving out the Persian cavalry.
Until now, neither Alexander's companion cavalry nor the Guards infantry had participated directly in the battle. Under the cover of the surrounding Allies, they steadily and firmly left their original positions and tried to maneuver to the flank of the Persian central front.
It was not until Alexander, seeing that the entire Persian flank had been completely squeezed out of its original position, that he ordered his companion cavalry and 3,000 Guards infantry to accelerate their advance and turn to the left where Darius should be. Before the sluggish Persian second-line troops were in place, a fatal blow was launched that would determine the outcome of the entire battle.
So, under the horrified gaze of Darius and the others, Alexander and his elite cavalry were killed. The undead army responsible for protecting the safety of the king also immediately turned to meet the battle, but in the face of a large number of condescending 3-meter long guns, they were still a little weak with only 2 meters of spears. The high-speed charge of the partner cavalry quickly invalidated the compound bow suitable for long-distance combat, and the battle became a bloody melee.
Macedonian phalanx
Soon, the Macedonian Guards infantry arrived in time, and together with the cavalry, they launched a joint strangulation of the core of the Persian army. Although the best infantry in Persia resisted desperately, they found themselves completely lacking friendly assistance. As the 4 Macedonian lance phalanx approached, the dense gun forest completely suppressed the Persians.
In the confusion Darius was mistaken by the soldiers for being killed
A javelin fired from the rebel army killed the driver who was driving for the king of Persia. Due to the confusion and blurred vision, many soldiers thought that the king himself had been beheaded. Fear quickly spread throughout the army, causing many to flee. At this point, Darius could only leave at the request of the people on the left and right, and fell into the dust in Alexander's eager eyes.
Alexander, who had already won a preliminary victory, prepared to continue his pursuit, but news from the other side of the battlefield interrupted his original plan.
Parmanio, who had only two infantry regiments at this point, sent a plea for help from Alexander, stating that he was completely surrounded by Mazayas's forces. In addition, news of the Indian cavalry attacking the temporary heavy battalion also arrived. Two things happened at the same time, forcing the Macedonian king to turn around and rush to his left wing.
Alexander used his usual right-wing diagonal attack tactics in an unfavorable situation
In the process, they encountered Syrian and Indian cavalry that had actually begun a frenzied breakout. After a fierce close-quarters battle, the partner cavalry completed the rescue of the friendly forces, and the Persians were able to escape the chaos. They fought incredibly tenaciously on the right, but they couldn't save the outcome of the entire battle.
After the war Alexander entered Babylon in the chariot of the captured Persian emperors
With the battle of Gaugamela divided, the Persian Empire lost the opportunity to defeat the Macedonians in the end. Darius III had to abandon the important city of Babylon and flee to the Medes further east for refuge. The whole of affluent Babylonia was also completely defenseless, and was later easily conquered by Alexander's army.
Third, shake the pattern of civilization
Neither side at the time could have imagined that with the fall of babylon, the pattern of world civilization would change significantly. Previously, the Two Rivers Basin had always been a central area that could influence the development of the world situation. But with the influx of Macedonian and large numbers of Allied soldiers, Greek culture from across the Aegean sea would take the upper echelons. For hundreds of years to come, Greek culture will become fashionable in many parts of Asia. Therefore, the Battle of Gaugamela is actually the end of the classical two-river civilization.
In order to win the hearts and minds of the people, as in Egypt, Alexander also expressed his reverence for the Babylonian gods and ordered the restoration of the temple of the main god Maddukh. Soon after, he invaded the Persian capital of Susa and Persepolis, reaching deep into the heart of the Persian Empire. Alexander carried out astonishing captivity here, looting the palaces of Susa and Persepolis, and seizing countless gold, silver and treasure. In the vaults of Persepolis alone, 120,000 Tarrant treasures were plundered. Huge sums of gold and silver treasures were sent to Macedonia or rewarded to soldiers.
1881 woodblock print "The Wedding of Alexander the Great"
After that, Alexander moved his troops north and launched a long-distance raid to capture the Median capital of Ecpatana. In order to track down Darius III, he led his army through steep mountains and waterless deserts to part of Parthia and Bactria in 330 BC. At this time, the governor of Bactria, Bessus, supported his army and killed Darius, claiming to be the king of Persia. The body of Darius III was later found, and Alexander ordered that it be buried in the tomb of the Persian royal family in accordance with royal etiquette. After the death of Darius III, the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia came to an end. Alexander presents himself as his "rightful heir".
When Alexander defeated the Persian army once and for all, he gradually realized that the Persians were not barbarians, and that they were as wise and talented as the Greeks, and as worthy of respect. Thus he developed the idea of integrating two parts of the Empire into one, incorporating a large number of Persian troops into his own army, and he increasingly followed the old system of the Persian Empire and its regions, promoting eastern vassals and recruiting locals to supplement the army. Alexander adopted the lavish manners of the East, wearing a Persian crown and a Medes robe, and asked his subjects around him to prostrate themselves before him. A grand "East-West Union" banquet was also held in Susa to encourage Macedonians to marry Asian women.