On June 15, 2018, the U.S. government announced that it would impose a 25% tariff on about $50 billion of goods imported from China, and also stressed that if China retaliated, it would add more tariffs!
Not to be outdone, the Chinese government responded strongly, and in the early morning of June 16, the Customs Tariff Commission of the State Council issued an announcement deciding to impose a 25% tariff on 659 imports originating in the United States of about $50 billion, including pork and products originating in the United States and soybeans.
In the list of tariffs imposed by China on US goods, the feed raw material soybeans, which are of great concern to industry insiders, especially farmers, are listed, in addition to corn, sorghum and so on. Although the tariffs were only implemented on July 6, 2018, the merchants who sniffed out the smoke of war quickly raised the price of soybean meal on June 16, and the magnitude was staggering, and the average domestic price of soybean meal rose by 250 yuan / ton on June 15, standing at a high point of 3,000 yuan / ton.
In the face of the soaring soybean meal and pig breeding market downturn, how should we grasp the quality of soybean meal procurement? First of all, let's take a look at soybean meal!
Soybean meal is a by-product obtained after soybean oil extraction from soybeans. According to the different extraction methods, it can be divided into two kinds: one soaked soybean meal and two soaked soybean meal. Among them, the by-product after extracting soybean oil by the dip extraction method is a soaked soybean meal, and the by-product obtained after the oil is first extracted by pressing and then extracting the oil is called two soaked soybean meal. In the whole processing process, the control of temperature is extremely important, and too high a temperature will affect the protein content, which is directly related to the quality and use of soybean meal; Too low a temperature will increase the moisture content of soybean meal, while a high moisture content will affect the quality of soybean meal during the storage period. The production process of one-soaked soybean meal is more advanced and the protein content is high, which is the main variety circulating in the domestic spot market.
According to national standards, soybean meal is divided into three grades, first-class soybean meal, second-level soybean meal and third-grade soybean meal. Judging from the current situation of the domestic soybean meal spot market, the total domestic soybean meal processing (excluding imported soybean meal) is about 10 million tons, of which the first-class soybean meal accounts for about 20%, the secondary soybean meal accounts for about 75%, the third-grade soybean meal accounts for about 5%, and the change in the circulation of the three-grade soybean meal is mainly related to the quality of soybeans. Judging from the market demand of different grades of soybean meal, a small number of large feed mills with strength in China are using primary soybean meal, most feed mills currently mainly use secondary soybean meal (protein content of 43%), secondary soybean meal is still the mainstream product of the domestic soybean meal consumption market, and tertiary soybean meal has been rarely used. Soybean meal is widely used in feed processing, and the proportion of pig, chicken and duck feed is 20%-30%.
Color: light yellow to light brown, too dark indicates excessive heating, too light indicates insufficient heating. The color of the whole batch of soybean meal should be basically the same.
Taste: With roasted soybean flavor, no sour, mildew, coking and other peculiar smells, and no raw bean fishy taste.
Texture: Uniform and good fluidity, irregular fragments, powders or granules, without excessive impurities.
Soybean meal contains about 43% protein, lysine 2.5% - 3.0%, tryptophan 0.6% - 0.7%, methionine 0.5% - 0.7%, cystine 0.5% - 0.8%; Carotene is less, only 0.2 - 0.4 mg / Kg, lumin, riboflavin 3 - 6 mg / Kg, niacin 15 - 30 mg / Kg, choline 2200 - 2800 mg / Kg. Soybean meal is more lacking in methionine, crude fiber mainly from soybean skin, nitrogen-free extract is mainly disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, low starch content, low mineral content, less calcium and phosphorus, less vitaminS, B, B2 less. Table 2 reflects the composition of soybean meal compared with other types of oil meal.
1, protein indicators: this indicator is the most important indicator in the feed industry, the industry generally believes that the higher the protein, the better the feed quality. As can be seen from the above table, peeled and peeled soybean meal ranked 3rd and 1st in this indicator, and peeled soybean meal greatly reduced the input of other additives in the feed with a high protein content of 48.5%, which improved the meat yield of livestock.
2, fiber index: this indicator can play a certain role in the nutritional synthesis of ruminants such as cattle, but it has almost no value for the nutritional synthesis of other non-ruminants. The content of etheric fiber and crude fiber with peeled and peeled soybean meal ranked 1st and 4th, 4th and 1st respectively.
3, energy indicators: This indicator reflects the energy that the unit feed can provide to livestock, in other words, how to achieve the same feeding effect with as little feed as possible. As can be seen from the above table, peeled and peeled soybean meal ranked 3rd and 1st respectively.
Here, the scores were determined according to the different effects of each indicator on raising livestock (data in table 1), and the following results were summarized: 33 for peeled soybean meal, 37 points for peeled soybean meal, 16 points for Canadian rapeseed meal, 20 points for cottonseed meal, 18 points for flaxseed meal, 29 points for peanut meal, 11 points for rapeseed meal, 20 points for safflower seed meal, 26 points for sesame seed meal, and 14 points for sunflower meal.
Based on the above indicators, the total scores of peeled soybean meal and peeled soybean meal ranked 1st and 2nd among the ten types of meal.
4, amino acids: soybean meal is also rich in a variety of amino acids, can fully meet the needs of different livestock and poultry for different nutrients. From the perspective of amino acid composition and digestibility, soybean meal is the best plant-based protein raw material. The following table is the amino acid experimental comparison data of different meal varieties:
The total value results obtained by the arithmetic averaging method showed that the peeled soybean meal and peeled soybean meal were 2.4 and 2.7 respectively, ranking first and second among many varieties.
5, soybean meal also contains a group of carbohydrate jujube oligosaccharides, although due to the lack of the necessary substances that split into absorbable sugar jujube α - galactosin, so that oligosaccharides can not be directly absorbed by livestock, but its presence can accelerate the level of livestock metabolism. In addition, soybean meal provides essential vitamins for livestock.
6. Although soybean meal also contains hemagglutinin, saponin and other components that are not conducive to nutrient absorption, these unfavorable factors will be limited to a limited range due to the production process of high temperature and high humidity.
Soybean meal is the one with the largest yield and the most wide range of uses among the 12 kinds of animal and vegetable oil meal feed products such as cottonseed meal, peanut meal and rapeseed meal. As a high protein, mainly concentrated in the feeding industry, feed processing industry, used for the production of livestock, poultry edible feed, food processing industry, papermaking, coatings, pharmaceutical and other industries have a certain demand for soybean meal, used to make pastry food, health food and cosmetics and antibacterial raw materials.
About 85% of soybean meal is used in poultry and pig rearing, and the various amino acids contained in soybean meal are suitable for the nutritional needs of poultry and pigs. Experiments have shown that without the addition of animal protein, the amino acids contained in soybean meal alone are enough to balance the nutrition of poultry and pigs, thereby promoting nutrient absorption in livestock. In poultry and pig rearing, soybean meal is used to the maximum. It will only be taken into account when the unit protein cost of cottonseed meal and peanut meal is much lower than soybean meal. In fact, soybean meal has become a benchmark for comparing other protein sources.
During the feeding process of dairy cows, delicious and easily digestible soybean meal can increase milk production. Soybean meal is also one of the most important oilseed meals in the rearing of beef cattle. Soybean meal is also used to make pet food. Simple blends of corn and soybean meal have the same value as foods made with high animal protein.
In recent years, soybean meal has also been widely used in aquaculture. Soybean meal contains a variety of amino acid dates such as methionine and cystic acid dates to fully meet the special needs of fish for amino acids. Due to the overfishing of fishmeal, the world's fishmeal production has decreased, and the shortage of supply has made fishmeal prices high, so soybean meal with high protein has begun to replace fishmeal. It plays an increasingly important role in aquaculture.
In addition, soybean meal is also used to make pet food. Simple corn and soybean meal blends have the same value to pets as foods made with high animal protein. An experiment conducted by the University of Illinois in the United States showed that soybean meal has the same high protein as pork, but does not contain low glycates that affect nutrient digestion.
Light yellow irregular fragments, consistent color, fresh, with the special aroma of soybean meal. No fermentation, mildew, agglomeration, insect moths and odors. Do not mix other substances other than soybean meal, if the addition of antioxidants, mildew inhibitors and other additives should be explained accordingly.
Moisture: ≤ 13.0% (South) Moisture: ≤13.5% (Northern) Crude Protein ≥43.0% Crude Fiber ≤5.0% Crude Ash ≤6.0% Methionine ≥0.6% Lysine ≥ 2.5% 0.05Nmg/min. Gram ≤ urease activity ≤ 0.3 Nm/min. Protein solubility ≤ 85% gram ≤ 70%3
The amount of soybean meal is getting larger and larger, and the price is higher than that of other meals, although the adulteration phenomenon is relatively small, but there is still a phenomenon of adulteration of soybean meal in reality. But how can you purchase high-quality soybean meal? And how to identify it?
a. Appearance identification method. The shape, particle size, color, smell, texture and other indicators of the feed are identified. Soybean meal is flaky or powdery and has a bean flavor. Pure soybean meal is irregular fragments, light yellow to light brown, consistent color, occasionally a small amount of clumps, smelling of soybean meal inherent bean flavor. On the contrary, if the color is gray, the particles are uneven, and there is a mildew smell, it is not good soybean meal. After mixing zeolite powder, corn and other impurities, the color is light, the color is different, there are many clumps, white powder can be seen, smelling slightly bean flavor, doped large amount of no bean flavor. If the sample is crushed and then compared with pure soybean meal, the color difference is even more obvious. During the crushing process, the fake soybean meal dust is large, and the dust in the glass window will adhere to the bottle wall, while pure soybean meal does not have this phenomenon. The tooth bite soybean meal is sticky, and the corn flour is brittle and powdery.
b. Outer packaging inspection method. Fine particles, large capacity and low price are common characteristics of most dopants. After the feed is adulterated with such substances, it must be that the packaging volume is small and the weight increases. Soybean meal is usually packaged in 60 kilograms, and after incorporating a large amount of zeolite and other substances, the packaging volume is smaller than normal.
c. Flooding method. Take 25 grams of soybean meal (cake) to be tested, soak it in a glass filled with 250 ml of water for 2-3 hours, and then gently shake it with your hands to see that soybean meal (broken cake) is layered with sediment, the upper layer is soybean meal, and the lower layer is sediment.
d. Microscopy. Take one sample to be examined and one part of pure soybean meal sample, place it in a Petri dish, and make it evenly dispersed, and place it under the microscope for observation. It can be observed under the microscope: the inner and outer surfaces of the pure soybean meal shell are smooth, shiny, and have the imprint of being needleped, and the bean kernel particles are dull, opaque, and creamy; The corn kernel cortex is smooth and translucent, with fingernail-like lines and stripes, which are the distinctive characteristics that distinguish corn kernels from bean kernels. In addition, the color of corn kernels is also darker than that of beans, and it is orange-red.
e. Identification method of iodine wine. Take a little soybean meal (cake) in a clean porcelain dish, lay thin and flat, drop a few drops of iodine wine on it, after 1 minute, if any of the substances become blue-black, it means that it is mixed with corn, bran, rice husks, etc.
f. Bulk weight measurement identification method. Feed raw materials have a certain bulk weight, if there is an adulterant, the bulk weight will change. Therefore, measuring bulk density is also one of the methods to determine whether soybean meal is adulterated. The specific method is: take the sample by the quartile method, and then put the sample very lightly and carefully into the 1000 ml graduated cylinder so that it is exactly at the 1000 ml scale, adjust the volume with a spoon, and then pour the sample out of the measuring cylinder and weigh it. Repeat each sample 3 times, taking the average of which is a volume in g/l. The bulk weight of pure soybean meal is generally 594.1g/l-610.2g/l, compared with the measured sample bulk density, if it exceeds more, it means that the soybean meal is adulterated.
Feed should be cooked bean cake as raw material, rather than raw bean cake, because raw bean cake contains antitrypsin, saponin and other substances, affecting the palatability and digestibility of livestock and poultry. The method is to take 0.1 grams of urea in a 250ml triangle bottle, add 0.1 grams of soybean meal powder to be measured, add distilled water to 100ml, cover the cork and warm it in 45 °C water for 1 hour. Take a red litmus test strip immersed in this solution, such as the litmus test paper turns blue, indicating that the soybean meal is raw, if the test paper does not change color, then the soybean meal is cooked.
Soybean meal is a by-product obtained by soybean oil after extraction, which is divided into one soaked soybean meal and two soaked soybean meal according to different extraction methods, of which the by-product obtained after extracting soybean oil by using the extraction method is a soaked soybean meal; The by-product obtained after extracting the oil by pressing and then extracting the oil is called two-immersion soybean meal. The production technology of one-soaked soybean meal is relatively advanced and the protein content is high, which is the main variety circulating in the spot market at home and abroad.
The oil and fat factory purchased soybeans → de-impurity → crushing (a soybean is crushed into about 6-8 pieces) → heated and adjusted the moisture content (destroying the original tissue, easy to produce oil) → pressed into pieces and continued to adjust the moisture→ add solvent spraying, quench soybean oil → desolvented → soybean meal
In the processing process of soybean meal, temperature control is the most important link, too high or too low will affect the protein content in soybean meal, and directly lead to the quality of soybean meal in the future and the use of effect.
According to whether the soybean seed coat is mixed into the baking process, soybean meal can also be divided into peeled soybean meal and peeled soybean meal, the main difference between the two is the difference in protein levels, the specific indicators see the following table:
In addition to understanding soybean meal, we will pay attention to the 11 kinds of meal that replace soybean meal, and maybe when soybean meal rises to exceed our ability to bear, it is time to consider alternative products!
Cottonseed meal ranks third in the world in total oilseed production, with a total output of 15.6 million tons in 1997. Typical yields of whole cottonseed are 50% cottonseed meal, 22% cotton hulls and 16% cottonseed oil. Compared with soybean meal, cottonseed meal has a slightly lower protein content of about 41%, while the fiber content is higher by 11%-13%. The energy contained in cottonseed meal is affected by its residual oil, depending on the processing method used. In terms of amino acid composition, cottonseed meal is very poor in terms of all four of the most important essential amino acids (lysine, methionine, threonine, tryptophan). Due to the poor digestibility and balance of amino acids, the addition of L-lysine and D and L-methionine in pig and poultry feed is higher than normal.
Gossypol is a known toxic component in cottonseed meal, which limits the use of cottonseed meal in monogastric animal feed. Free gossypol can cause damage to the heart muscle and liver leading to myocardial edema, dyspnea, weakness, and loss of appetite. Gossypol in the feed can also produce olive-green yolks in stored poultry eggs, which is caused by the chemical reaction of iron and gossypol in the egg. Cottonseed meal also contains cyclopropylene fatty acids, mallow acid and apple acid. Layer chickens eat these substances to make the egg whites pink. These substances are also known to interfere with liver metabolism and may enhance the toxicity of aflatoxin.
The discovery of gossypol-free cotton varieties makes cottonseed meal more suitable for pig and poultry rearing. However, due to the low cotton yield potential of these cotton species, the available quantities are limited. The upper limit of traditional cottonseed in broiler and layer feed is usually 2%, and the corresponding ratio in pig feed is 6%. If aflatoxin is taken into account, cottonseed meal should be avoided in duck feed formulations.
The color of double-low rapeseed meal is more yellow than dark brown rapeseed. The yellow variety originated from Brassica campsetris, while the dark type originated from B. napus.
Both the rapeseed varieties used to impregnate the oil and the extraction process method affect the quality of rapeseed meal. The optimal temperature range for tempering is 100-105 degrees Celsius for 15-20 minutes. This conditioning process destroys melanase (glucose thioseidase), which converts β-thioglucosides into goiter-causing factors and spicy compounds; Oral oxazolidinone-2-thione and isothiocyanate. Excessive process temperatures that often occur in rapeseed meal production can reduce the digestibility of essential amino acids.
In terms of nutrient content, the protein and energy of double-low rapeseed meal and rapeseed meal are slightly lower than that of soybean meal. The reason for its low energy value, in addition to its high fiber content, is attributed to the presence of a pentosan polymer, a non-starch polysaccharide with a low digestibility. The combination of high fiber and lower energy values limits the application of double-low rapeseed meal and rapeseed meal in high concentration broiler diets. In terms of minerals, rapeseed meal and double low rapeseed meal have a larger calcium and phosphorus content of soybean meal, but nearly 65% of phosphorus is in the form of phosphorus phytate and cannot be used. Double-low rapeseed meal and rapeseed meal also contain higher sulfur (about 1.1%, compared to 0.4% in soybean meal). High sulfur can cause leg abnormalities (Summers, 1989), therefore, when using (double low rapeseed meal and rapeseed meal, care should be taken to check the sulfur content of feed and water). The total amount of sulfate and sulfur ingested should be less than 0.4% in terms of the sulfur content in the diet.
The amino acid ratio of double-low rapeseed meal and rapeseed meal is well balanced, but lysine is lacking. The amino acid digestibility of this meal is usually lower than that of soybean meal, especially for poultry. Therefore, it is crucial to pay special attention to the balance and digestibility of amino acids in the final formulation when rapeseed meal is used in pig and poultry feed.
Rapeseed meal contains β-thioglucosides, which can lead to a decrease in the growth rate of various livestock fed and poor appetite problems when the feed amount is high. In the feed of layer chickens, if the amount is more than 5%, there will be a fishy taste or a decrease in taste in the yolk of brown shell layer chickens, which is due to the presence of choline and mustardine to promote the accumulation of trimethylamine in the egg yolk. When the dosing volume reaches 10%, the layer chickens will cause an increase in mortality due to hemorrhagic fatty liver disease. It has been mentioned that feeding broiler chickens with rapeseed meal causes carcass odor. There have also been reports of leg abnormalities when the broiler diet contains 30% rapeseed meal. The main reason for the poor production performance of pigs caused by feeding canola meal is poor palatability. The content of rapeseed meal in feeds above 5% can cause thyroid, kidney and liver enlargement in piglets and producing pigs. The amount of rapeseed meal in sow feed should be less than 3% to prevent reproductive damage. Replacing rapeseed meal with double-low rapeseed meal can greatly reduce the above problems, with the exception of problems related to glucosamine. The Canadian Canola Commission recommends that the maximum proportion of this meal in the feed is as follows: 20% for chicks/growing birds, 10% for egg/breeding birds, 8% for piglets, 12% for growing/breeding pigs and 18% for fattened pigs.
In 1977, the world's production of corn protein powder meal was 3.2 million tons. Corn protein feed and corn protein powder are corn wet mill products. Corn syrup and water produce corn starch, fructose, corn syrup and corn oil through the processing of enzymes and other chemicals, and produce two kinds of residual scum with different gluten content: corn feed with 20%-25% protein and 7%-10% crude fiber, which is the most commonly used feed in ruminant feed, and there are data from late tubes showing that adding 25% to layer hen feed is still valuable without negative effects.
Corn protein powder with 40%-60% protein is an excellent source of methionine and lutein, but lacks lysine. This high-protein raw material is widely used in poultry feed to supplement amino acids and as a source of yellow pigment. The application of this meal is often limited by its high price. Residual aflatoxin contained in raw corn raw materials and mold growth during storage make zeal protein powder susceptible to aflatoxin contamination. The use of corn protein powder in pig diets is sometimes limited to 2% to prevent the occurrence of yellow fecal color, which can remind some producers that for poultry, price and low lysine content are the main limiting factors.
The total world production of sunflower meal in 1997 was 10.3 million tonnes. The main producers are the former Soviet Union, the European Community, Argentina, the United States and China.
The nutritional composition of sunflower meal varies depending on the quality of the sunflower seeds and the refining method used. Due to the higher residual oil content of the pressed sunflower cake, the energy level is also higher than that of sunflower meal after solvent immersion; The quality also depends on whether the sunflower seeds are hulled before refining. Hulled sunflower meal will contain more than 40% protein and less than 13% crude fiber. Partially hulled sunflower meal contains 30%-35% protein, while whole-shell sunflower meal contains about 25% crude protein. Partially hulled or unhulled sunflower meal has more than 20% crude fiber, which is a major limiting factor when used in pig and poultry feed. Due to the different levels of hull containment, the quality of sunflower meal varies greatly, which is the most important limiting factor when using this feed ingredient. In addition, the processing temperature has a significant impact on the quality of sunflower meal. Low-temperature processing is ideal for preventing denaturation of lysine and other valuable amino acids.
Sunflower meal contains higher chlorogenic acids, a tannin-like compound. This acid inhibits the activity of digestive enzymes, including trypsin, chymotrypsin, amylase, and lipase (Cheeke and Shull, 1985). Chlorogenic acid is neither coagulated nor hydrolyzed, and when the tannin is measured, more than 1% of the 3%-3.5% of the total phenolic compounds contained in sunflower meal cannot be detected. Additional methionine and choline are needed to counteract the effects of chlorogenic acid. Chlorogenic acid is also a precursor to n-benzoquinone, produced by the action of plant enzyme polyphenol oxidase. These compounds react to polymerize lysine in feed processing or in the digestive tract. Therefore, when sunflower meal is used in feed, the demand for methionine and lysine is increased.
Unlike soybean meal, sunflower meal is high in methionine while lysine and threonine are low. Therefore, the use of sunflower meal and soybean meal together can improve the amino acid balance in the feed. If the proportion of sunflower meal is higher, further replenishment of lysine is necessary. The digestibility of amino acids in sunflower meal is generally larger and lower in soybean meal. This should be taken into account when partially replacing soybean meal or fishmeal with sunflower seed meal. Sunflower meal is not recommended for piglet feed or suckling pig feed due to its high fiber and low energy. In growing and fattening pig feed, high-quality sunflower meal plus L-lysine can be replaced to two-thirds of soybean meal. However, if partially hulled sunflower meal is used, the feed efficiency will be significantly worse, which is a reflection of the excess fiber and low energy in the sunflower meal. For meat and poultry diets, it is recommended to use only high-quality shelled sunflower meal.
Sesame is a secondary oil crop commonly found in Asian countries. In 1997, the total output of the world was 900,000 tons, and the main producers were India, China, Sudan, Myanmar and Mexico.
The nutritional content of sesame meal can be compared with soybean meal, but the variation is large and is subject to the sesame variety, the degree of hulling and the processing method used. Whole sesame seeds contain 15%-29% of the skin. Rub with a huller or hand soak to separate the sesame peel from the sesame seeds. Most sesame seeds are also harvested by hand. Peeling sesame seeds reduces fiber by about 50% while increasing the protein content of sesame meal, improving digestibility and palatability. Sometimes sesame seeds are not peeled when grinding in an attempt to improve refining efficiency, but the nutritional value of sesame meal produced by this process is relatively poor. The protein content of different varieties of sesame meal ranges from 41% to 58%. The average protein content of pressed sesame cake is 40% and fat is typical. Solvent-impregnated sesame meal contains slightly higher protein, at 42%-45%, while fat is below 3%. Sesame meal has a lower energy than soybean meal, which seems to be related to its high ash content (10%-12%).
Sesame meal is an excellent source of methionine, cystine, and tryptophan, but lysine and threonine are extremely low. The amino acid composition of sesame meal can be complemented by other cake meal proteins, especially soybean meal. Studies have shown that soybean meal and rapeseed meal have a good response to chick growth in a 2:1 combination. Nearly 80% of sesame protein is reported to be digestible. Excessive heating or grinding process times can lead to a sharp decrease in amino acid utilization. High-temperature processing of sesame seeds can also lead to the destruction of cystine and thus the lack of sulfur-containing amino acids.
Sesame seeds are high in oxalic acid (35 mg/100 g) and phytic acid (5%). Dark varieties contain more of the above anti-nutritional factors than brown varieties. Oxalic acid and phytic acid are known to interfere with mineral metabolism and lower the utilization of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, zinc and iron. Oxalic acid can also cause kidney damage and reduce palatability due to its astringent taste. Shelling sesame seeds removes oxalate but has little effect on phytic acid. Phytic acid can be degraded by adding a feed enzyme containing active phytase or by adding raw wheat containing a fairly high level of effective phytase to the feed.
Sesame meal is widely used in poultry diets, mainly due to its high content of sulfur amino acids and essential fatty acids. It should be taken into account that the lysine content and digestibility of sesame meal are low, and it is necessary to replenish the synthesis of lysine. Specially carquered sesame meal helps avoid palatability issues. The use of sesame meal in pig feed is less common, because pigs have lower requirements for methionine and cystine, while sesame meal has a lower content of lysine. However, if the price of sesame meal is competitive and high lysine raw materials such as fishmeal and soybean meal have been used in the diet, sesame meal can be used in the diet of growing fattening pigs up to 15%, so that the pigs have satisfactory performance. In practice, the blending limit level of sesame meal should be 5%-8% to prevent soft pork from producing a high percentage (more than 80%) of unsaturated fatty acids in the residual oil.
Peanuts are a popular human food in many parts of the world, and peanut meal, a by-product of peanut refining, is a ready-to-use source of protein. In 1997, the world's total production of peanut meal was 6.2 million tons, with China and India being the main producers.
The nutritional content of peanut meal varies significantly depending on the refining method used. The content of peanut shells directly affects the fiber and energy content of peanut meal. The fat content of solvent-impregnated peanut meal is generally less than 1.5%. The fat content of pressed peanut cake varies with the efficiency of the refining. Residual oil in peanut meal stored for a long time under tropical warm and humid conditions is a negative feature because it is easily oxidized, which leads to poor palatability, toxicity and reduced energy, thus greatly reducing the quality of peanut meal.
Compared with soybean meal, peanut meal has a poor proportion of amino acids, lacking methionine, lysine and tryptophan, and the digestibility of these poorly proportioned amino acids is very low. Therefore, it is necessary to add additional crystalline amino acids to the feed when using peanut meal.
Like most legumes, peanuts contain trypsin inhibitors and other protease inhibitors that require proper processing to destroy these anti-nutrient factors. Another undesirable factor often associated with peanut meal is that peanuts are contaminated with aspergillus flavus, aflatoxin-producing fungus, before, during and after harvest. Ducks, turkey chicks, and broiler chicks are most sensitive to aflatoxin. This mycotin can cause bleeding from the liver, kidneys, and pectoral muscles, reducing immunity. Aflatoxin B is known to have the above toxic effect at concentrations as low as 250 ppb. Because of the widespread presence of aflatoxin and its impact on human health, many authorities have set limit standards for human food ingredients and feeds. For example, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has set a limit of 100 ppb for interstate freight feed.
Concerned about aflatoxin contamination, it is generally recommended not to use peanut meal in juvenile poultry feed. In addition, if the improper processing of peanut meal fails to destroy the trypsin inhibitors, the production performance of young birds will also be affected.
However, if the peanut meal is of good quality, it can be used in broiler feed to 6%, and 9% in layer feed should also have good results. However, for the sake of safety and caution, most nutritionists limit peanut meal to 4% in poultry feed. As far as pig feed is concerned, high-quality peanut meal can replace 1/3 of soybean meal in suckling pig feed and 2/3 of soybean meal in growing pig feed. If pressed peanut cake is used, the level of blending in the growing pig feed should be limited to avoid soft fat and greasy carcass problems, as well as a decrease in taste due to rancidity, mainly due to the high residual unsaturated fatty acids in the peanut cake (83% of the total fatty acids).
About one-third of the world's catch is used each year to produce fishmeal for domestic animals. The world's annual production of fishmeal in 1997 was estimated at 4.7 million tonnes. This is the only protein feed that has reduced production year by year. The main producers are the United States, Peru, Chile and Denmark. Most fishmeal is processed by cooking the fish, squeezing out most of the oil and water, and then biscuiting the compressed fish. Sometimes the squeezed liquid concentrate is added back to the fishmeal. There are also many different production models. In some processing plants where fish oil can be recycled, such as white salmon may eliminate the pressing process (Barlow and Windsor, 1994). Locally produced fishmeal may have dried fish on the beach, and canned scraps may contain the heads, tails and offal of various types of fish (e.g., tuna) that have been dried and ground. Different processing techniques, raw materials, cooking methods, drying, grinding and storage have a significant impact on the quality and nutritional content of fishmeal.
Most fishmeal is brownish and rich in protein, fat and minerals. Protein content can vary from 50% to 72%, fat from 2% to 12%, and unauthened fish at more than 12%. Fishmeal can have a salt content of 1.3%-4%. Compared with soybean meal, fishmeal contains more lysine and sulfur-containing amino acids, but the variation between samples is larger. The composition of fishmeal fatty acids varies depending on the variety of raw fish used. Sardine meal contains the most omega-3 fatty acids, followed by white salmon meal and fish meal. The unsaturated fatty acids in fishmeal are very susceptible to oxidation leading to the production of toxic free radicals and lower energy content. Oxidation during storage can lead to heating, reduce the digestibility of amino acids, and even spontaneous combustion.
Fishmeal is also susceptible to bioamine contamination. Substances like erosin and histamines are produced when spoiled or spoiled fish are thermally processed. These substances increase gastric acid secretion and have been reported to cause gastrointestinal erosion and other injuries in poultry (Okazaki et al., 1983).
Premium fishmeal is an excellently balanced source of protein. This is often reflected in the corresponding price. For pigs and poultry, fishmeal has excellent palatability and is often used for suckling pig feed or chick feed with the highest amino acid requirements. Fishmeal should be avoided in the diet near the time of slaughter so as not to cause the fishy smell of the meat caused by the rich amines in the fishmeal. Adding more than 1%-2% fishmeal to egg feed can cause eggs to have a fishy taste.
The quota of fishmeal in the diet of broilers and pigs during the breeding period should be between 2% and 10% depending on the quality and composition. This limit is necessary to prevent excessive mineral replenishment.
Lupines are mainly grown in cooler climates in Australia, Canada, Western and Eastern Europe, and their nutrient content and anti-nutrient factor levels vary greatly. With the genetic improvement of lupine with reduced alkaloid content and the large-scale cultivation in Western Australia, lupine meal has appeared in many countries in Asia.
Lupines that meet the following conditions will be a fairly good source of protein and can be used as a feed ingredient. Lupine meal should be made from low quinoquinine (<0.03%) lupine. Quazine is known to cause neurological problems and its bitter taste, which can cause palatability problems in pigs. The content of quinoline varies with lupine varieties. Although sweet lupine is low in quinoline, it is easily mixed with bitter lupine seeds. Lupine meal should be made from hulled seeds to prevent indigestible shell-to-energy dilution. The manganese content of lupine meal should be monitored, as some varieties have a very high content (6900 ppm) and manganese can promote fat oxidation or cause direct toxicity (Van Kempen and Jansman, 1994). Lupines also contain large amounts (7%-12%)α-galactosin. Because there is no galactosin enzyme in the digestive tract of pigs and chickens, these oligosaccharides cannot be digested and fermented in the cecum of pigs. There are conflicting proofs of whether these sugars have inhibitory effects on poultry growth (Brenes, Trevino, Centeno, and Yuste, 1989).
The main polysaccharide of lupine is β-1-4 galactoglycan, which contains D-galactose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnosaccharide and galacturonic acid (Van Kempen and Jansman, 1994). The total non-starch polysaccharides in lupines are about 37%, and about 50% in the shell. These ingredients can cause wet sticky feces and moist mat grass.
Western Australian lupinus angustofoli Lupins have high energy levels when used in pigs, only slightly behind soybean meal; When used in poultry, energy levels are higher and soybean meal is low. Its protein level is about 30%, which is lower than soybean meal. Lupine meal is low in lysine and methionine but is a good source of threonine. Lupine's amino acids are ideal for poultry than for pigs.
Recommended dosage of hulled sweet lupine meal: 4% or less of the diet of broiler chicks; Grow less than 6% of broilers; Fattening broilers and laying hens below 7%; Growing pigs can tolerate up to 20%-25% of lupine meal in their diet.
Grown in cooler climates and occasionally in Asian countries, peas are not crushed for oil pressing but are usually used for shell grinding. Like other legumes, peas contain trypsin inhibitors that can cause trouble if peas are used as feed ingredients without heat treatment. However, raw peas contain only about 1/10 of the trypsin inhibitory factor equivalent to raw soybeans. Peas also contain tannins and polyphenols, substances that reduce the digestibility of amino acids. Peas also contain small amounts of lipoxygenase (Savage, 1989).
Peas are extremely deficient in methionine, but there is enough energy for pigs and birds. Since peas contain anti-nutritional factors, the usual maximum use is 10%-20%. It is beneficial for granulation of feed formulated with peas.
Palm seed meal is mainly produced in Malaysia, Indonesia, Nigeria and Thailand, and is a surplus product after palm fruit refining. Total world production in 1997 was estimated at 2.6 million tonnes.
Palm seeds are wrapped in thick shells, and the refining must first press the shells until they are cracked, and then shelled and steamed before refining. The quality of palm meal depends largely on the removal of the shell. Palm cakes produced by press refining contain about 6% residual oil, and palm meal produced by solvent immersion contains residual oil between 1% and 2%. Among the various oil meals, palm seed meal has the lowest protein content, with a normal range of 16% to 18%. If the shell and fruit fibers are not effectively removed, proteins as low as 13% and fibers exceed 20%. Due to its high fibre, the energy content of palmseed meal is quite low, especially for poultry. Half of the palm seed meal fibers are neutral washing fibers and are high in semi-ghenot mannans such as β-(1,4)-D-mannose (Daud and Jarvis, 1992). There is great potential to improve the nutritional value of palm seed meal by adding feed enzymes.
Similar to peanut meal and coconut meal, the amino acid composition of palm seed meal is poor in terms of amino acid balance and digestibility, and lacks lysine, methionine and tryptophan. It is estimated that poultry digestibility of lysine and methionine in palmseed meal is as low as 59%, while the corresponding value of soybean meal is 90%. The digestibility of other essential amino acids in palm seed meal is also low. The reason for the low digestibility of amino acids is that proteins are encapsulated in carbohydrate complexes and treated at high temperatures in the refining process.
Due to its high fiber and low amino acid digestibility, palmseed meal may be best suited for ruminant feed. For pigs, the poor palatability of palm seed meal needs to be combined with dilution of sugar to achieve a reasonable feed intake. Similar to coconut meal, palm seed meal residues contain short-chain saturated fatty acids, which result in a white, solid carcass. The use of palmseed meal should be limited in poultry feed because of its poor protein content, high fiber content and low energy value. Shelled palm seed meal has been reported to cause damage to intestinal wall cells in poultry.
Coconut kernels are nuts taken from sun-dried or machine-dried coconut fruits. The main producers are the Philippines and Indonesia, which accounted for two-thirds of the world's total 2 million tonnes of coconut cedar in 1997. By weight, coconut kernels can be refined into about 30%-40% coconut oil. The dried crumpled residue is further ground into coconut (meal or cake) powder. Coconut cakes produced by the pressing process contain about 8% residual oil and are sometimes extracted with solvents, depending on the market demand for oil, which is now quite high. Coconut meal still has difficult problems; The oil content varies greatly, and the content of mold contamination and non-starch polysaccharides that are difficult to digest is high.
Most coconut cakes encountered in practice have residual oil content between 9% and 16%. Some coconut cakes produced in small-scale oil pressing processes or with poor equipment can contain up to 20% residual oil. The residual oil content of coconut meal extracted with solvents is less than 2%. Coconut cakes with a high residual oil content are a valuable source of pig and poultry energy. Coconut oil is mainly composed of short-chain saturated fatty acids (50% C12:0, 15% C14:0), which is easily digested by pigs and poultry.
High humidity, poor drying conditions and improper storage lead to a high incidence of mold contamination of coconut kernels. Coconut kernels are an ideal medium for mycotoxin formation. In addition, high humidity and high storage temperature facilitate the oxidation of residual oil and thus affect the palatability of coconut meal. The high fibre content of coconut meal seriously affects its use in poultry feed. The fiber of coconut meal is rich in mannose polymers, which have low digestibility. It often has a slowing effect on pigs and poultry.
Coconut meal has protein content ranging from 19%-23%, which is much lower than soybean meal, and its protein quality is poor in both amino acid balance and digestibility (Table 4). The amino acid digestibility of coconut meal may be further reduced due to excessive processing temperatures. Coconut meal has a poor amino acid composition than many other protein sources, lacks important essential amino acids such as lysine, methionine, threonine, histidine but is high in arginine. Excess arginine is known to hinder the utilization of lysine, and the high content of coconut meal (in the feed) can have a negative effect on the growth rate of pigs and poultry. It is important to supplement lysine when using coconut meal to correct lysine deficiency and reduce arginine antagonism.
The level of coconut meal in poultry feed depends to a large extent on the quality of the coconut meal itself, particularly in the case of aflatoxin contamination. The upper limit for the blending of high-quality coconut meal in poultry feed is usually about 3% or 4%. Coconut meal is not recommended for use in piglets due to its high fiber content and low lysine digestibility (62%). As the pig ages, the amount of coconut meal in the pig feed during the growth and fattening stage can be increased to 10%. The residual oil in coconut meal is highly fed and increases the hardness of the dorsal body of the pig carcass. While this is ideal for most Western countries (in the case of leg meat), it is not necessarily easy to accept in Asia. For example, the hard, coagulated fat in roast pork is considered negative in the visual and taste orientation of Chinese and other races.
The availability of cheaper cake meal protein provides a way out to reduce feed production costs. The above discussion points out that it is not enough to evaluate the suitability of a protein raw material based on the analysis of the approximate composition and total amino acids of the raw material. A broader evaluation specification based on the following is necessary:
Since the quality variation of these replacement protein resources is greater than that of soybean meal, it is important to know the source of the material and the processing method used. The use of the most appropriate nutritional value and the skill to understand the limitations of various raw materials will largely determine whether the goal of reducing costs without compromising animal performance will be successful.
These important considerations determine protein efficiency or amino acid utilization. Although this information is still lacking in many feed ingredients, some estimates should be made based on past history and experience.
When the source and quality of feed ingredients cannot be determined, anti-nutritional factors can become a problem. Its analysis costs are usually high, and the analysis equipment is not easy to put in place. It should be emphasized that problems related to the presence of anti-nutritional factors will become more irrelevant by breeding new oilseed varieties, improving processing methods and adopting feed enzymes.
This is often overlooked when experimenting with new feed ingredients, including new protein resources. Any factor that has a negative impact on the marketing of pork, poultry meat, eggs, whether it is smell, color, taste and taste, can seriously damage the acceptability of feed products. In addition, when it comes to the quality of end products, it should be noted that products that are ideally acceptable in one country may not be feasible in another country.