【Editor's Note】 On March 5, General Secretary Xi Jinping stressed during the deliberations of the Inner Mongolia delegation to the Fourth Session of the 13th National People's Congress that "cultural identity is the deepest level of identity, the root of national unity and the soul of national harmony" "It is necessary to carry out in-depth education on the awareness of the Chinese national community among cadres and masses of all ethnic groups, especially starting from the education of young people, guide the vast number of cadres and masses to fully understand the party's ethnic policy, and establish a correct view of the country, history, nationality, culture and religion." A few days ago, Comrade Pan Yue, first vice president of the Central Socialist Academy, wrote a preface to the third volume of the academy's "Series of Mutual Learning between Chinese and Western Civilizations," "China's Five Hu Entry into China and the Invasion of European Barbarians," telling the story of the people of all ethnic groups during the Wei and Jin Dynasties who, out of cultural identity, merged into a community of common destiny and rebuilt a unified country, analyzed the reasons why the Germanic barbarians could not recreate a unified Europe after they invaded Rome, and clarified the source of Western-centrism's misunderstanding of China's ethnic and religious policies. This article is specially published for the benefit of readers.
Between 300 and 600 AD, China and Rome once again faced similar historical situations, while facing the decline of central power and the large-scale impact of the surrounding ethnic groups.
In China, it was the five Hu ethnic groups of Xiongnu, Xianbei, Xianbei, Qiang, and Qiang who went south and established many political powers. In Rome, it was the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians, Franks, Lombards and other Germanic tribes that invaded in waves and built "barbarian kingdoms" one after another.
Similar historical trajectories produce completely different results.
Among the more than ten regimes of the Five Hu dynasties in China, there was first the Former Qin of the Hu clan, and then there was the Northern Wei dynasty of Tuoba Xianbei who unified the entire north, although it was repeatedly disputed and divided, it finally achieved internal integration, and integrated the Southern Dynasty that once represented orthodoxy, inherited the super-large-scale state form of the Centralized Power of the Qin and Han Dynasties, and laid the foundation for the Sui and Tang Dynasties that integrated the Hu Han Dynasty.
In the centuries of conquest of the major barbarian kingdoms in Europe, although some kingdoms such as the Franks once achieved the basic unification of Western Europe, they are most likely to inherit the mantle of the Western Roman Empire. However, due to the logic of internal division, it eventually split into feudal countries, all of which relied on the "universal church" as a force for spiritual unity.
This historical fork once again reflects the different paths of China and the West from ethnic concepts to political systems. Among them, the logic of civilization is the most critical.
Wuhu entered China
The Battle of The Southward Migration
The fate of China and Rome was changed by a battle at Yanran Mountain in 89 AD.
After this battle, the Northern Xiongnu moved west to Europe, becoming an important promoter of the later Germanic tribes invading the Roman frontiers1; the Southern Xiongnu went south to the Central Plains, opening the precursor of the Five Hus entering China.
In 2017, Chinese and Mongolian archaeologists discovered Ban Gu's "Yanran Mountain Inscription" composed for the Han Dynasty to completely defeat the Xiongnu. People with a Han complex often cheer because of the "Yanran Le Monument" and "those who commit crimes against strong men will be punished from afar." However, the real history is that the Southern Xiongnu Shan Yu first detected the internal turmoil of the Northern Xiongnu and took the initiative to propose troops to the Han Dynasty2. Of the 46,000 cavalry led by Dou Xian, 30,000 were Southern Xiongnu, and half of the remaining 16,000 were Qiang3. It can be said that it was the nomadic tribes led by the Han Dynasty to the south to the Central Plains that jointly forced the Northern Xiongnu to move west.
This scene has also been repeatedly repeated in later generations. On the Turkic side of the Que TeQin Stone Tablet, which is listed by international Turkic scholars as a relic of the ancestors, the Turkic Khan complained sadly: why did the Hui Hui cooperate with the Tang Dynasty and besiege themselves, and why the steppe tribes always migrated to the Central Plains to live. 4
Is this a nomadic society that is not united? No. Geographically, whenever a cold wave of grasslands comes, the nomadic people in the north will migrate south. In terms of resource endowments, the grassland areas can only carry one-tenth of the population of the farming areas, and the nomadic people must obtain grain, tea, silk and linen fabrics from the Central Plains to survive and trade. One of the strong attractions of the Central Plains to the surrounding ethnic groups is advanced agriculture and handicrafts5. Unlike the more northern ethnic groups, which are willing to develop westward, the Southern Desert ethnic groups prefer to integrate with the Central Plains. They share the economic and transportation network of the north China with the Central Plains, making it easier to obtain food in the famine years, and it is easier to trade at a low cost, thus forming an economic and social community many times. Over time, from geography to economy, from folklore to language, from culture to institutions, 1500 years later, a political community encompassing Northeast Asia was finally formed.
After the Battle of Yanran Mountain, the Southern Xiongnu went deep into the Han Dynasty and lived nomadically in the northern border counties. Due to the policy of the Han Dynasty Huairou Yuanren, they did not pay taxes, but were subject to county population management6. Today in Ningxia, Qinghai, Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi, Shanxi found in the Southern Xiongnu cemetery, both Han-style tombs, but also grassland head hoof burial, Qinghai also unearthed the "Han Xiongnu Guiyi Pro-Han Chief" Luo Button copper seal 7, Hu and Han cultures blended with each other. Before and after the Southern Xiongnu went south, there were also Qiang in the northwest, Xianbei in the northeast, and Qi people in the north. In the late Three Kingdoms period, due to the drastic decline in the population of the Central Plains, Wei and Jin constantly "recruited the Five Hus". In the past hundred years, there have been about millions of Wuhu people who have migrated inland, of which 700,000 are Xiongnu, 800,000 are Qiang, 1 million are Xianbei, and 2.5 million are Xianbei. 8 After the "Rebellion of the Eight Kings" in the Western Jin Dynasty, the total population of the north was 15 million, and the Han Chinese accounted for only one-third. Some people mistakenly think that "Sinicization" means "assimilation" and that "large ethnic groups" rely on the absolute advantage of population numbers to change the way of life of "small ethnic groups". 9 But the real history is that the Northern Wuhu ethnic group not only has a military advantage, but also a population of 10, it is completely possible to "herd horses in the Central Plains" according to the old customs, and it is completely possible to "Huhua" the Han people, but they have taken the initiative to choose a "Sinicization Road".
The Road to Sinicization
The road to Sinicization was opened by the Southern Xiongnu.
The first of the Five Hus to establish a dynasty and destroy the Western Jin Dynasty was Liu Yuan, a Southern Xiongnu. He was the great-grandson of Shan Yu of the Southern Xiongnu Qiangqu, and was changed to the surname Of Liu due to his han-Hungarian peace. As a son of nobility, Liu Yuan studied in the court of the Jin Dynasty, reading Mao Shi and Shang Shu, learning Shi Ji and Han Shu, and loved Zuo Zhuan and Sun Wu's Art of War. He divided Shanxi and claimed the title of emperor, but he did not want to restore the xiongnu's northern homeland, rather than unifying the world with "Han" as the national name. To this end, after he claimed to be Liu Bang, Liu Xiu, and Liu Bei, in order to explain the legitimacy of "nephews of the Han Dynasty" and "brothers who died and brothers succeeded", he even set up a tablet to worship Liu Chan, who could not be supported.
However, Liu Yuan's regime did not continue and was destroyed by Shi Le. The "high-nosed and bearded" people belonged to the Cypriots and once attached themselves to the Xiongnu as "Other Parts" and "Miscellaneous Beards". Shi Le's origin was different from Liu Yuan's. Liu Yuan was a nomadic nobleman who mixed with the court; Shi Le was a peasant slave and a wanderer. But Shi Le also loves Han culture. He was illiterate, but he was "good at literature" and loved to hear people read him the Book of Han. Prince Shi Hong was arranged by him to become a Confucian. But Shi Le also did not succeed, and the foundation of unifying the north was destroyed by the brutal descendants. From the ruins of Later Zhao, Murong Xianbei's Former Yan and Former Qin of the Huan people were born.
The first of the Five Hus to unify the north was Former Qin Jianjian. Former Qin made its home in the Guanzhong of Qin, and its territory was once "the east pole of the canghai sea, the west and guizi, the south of Xiangyang, and the north of the desert". However, within a few years, he was defeated due to the hasty cutting of the Jin Dynasty. On the "remnants" of Former Qin, the Later Qin of the Qiang people Yao Clan, the Later Yan of Murong Xianbei, and the Great Xia of the Xiongnu Helian were divided.
In the melee, Tuoba Xianbei came all the way from the Mongolian steppe, broke through the crowd, and set the name of the country as Wei. After three generations of hard work, the north was finally unified for more than a hundred years. Northern Wei then evolved into Northern Zhou and Northern Qi, respectively, and then Northern Zhou unified the north and created the Sui and Tang dynasties that unified the world.
Former Qin and Northern Wei, the two regimes closest to unifying the world, had the highest degree of Sinicization and the most resolute attitude toward Sinicization.
Born into a family of good wines for generations, Jian Jian was a heroic man who was a warrior and a horseman, but he was familiar with the history of the Bible since childhood. After taking the throne, he paid the most attention to literature and education, and visited Taixue every month to examine the scriptures of all life. His goal was to not fall into the "Zhou Kong Weiyan" (Zhou Gong Confucius) morally, and to surpass the "Han Zhi Er Wu" (Han Wu Guangwu) in practice. He subdued the Western Regions, but returned the sweat and blood BMW, which was higher than the Han Wu who "fought for the horse". While fighting the Eastern Jin Dynasty, he also set aside a good position in the imperial court for the Eastern Jin Dynasty monarchs to repair the mansion, imitating the Zhou government of "rising and destroying and continuing to extinction". He captured Murong Xianbei but refused to kill him, and arranged for Murong Wei and Murong Chui to be officials. Countless people advised him to eliminate hidden dangers, but he had to set an example of subjugating people with virtue.11 He had just been defeated at Shuishui, and the Xianbei Haojie rebelled and established Later Yan and Western Yan. The degree of paranoia of Jian Jian to "benevolence" was once ridiculed as Song Xianggong who "refused to attack halfway".
Some people say that Former Qin died in "too Sinicization", but after Tuoba Northern Wei unified the north, it implemented "Sinicization" more thoroughly than Former Qin. Emperor Tuoba Jue of Daowu said, "For the way of the country, both culture and martial arts are used." Emperor Taiwu reused a large number of Han Chinese and moved Hexi scholars to the capital, and the xianbei disciples had to follow suit to learn Confucianism, "so that more people were still alive, and Confucianism became more prosperous." Emperor Xiaowen Tuoba Hong was even more "institutionalized". He moved the capital to Luoyang, modeled on the official system of the two Southern Jin Dynasties; ordered the Xianbei people to set the mendi, change their Han surnames, and speak Chinese; and took the lead and let his younger brothers intermarry with the Han people.
Some historians believe that the reason why the Northern Wei Dynasty was able to unify the north, and the reason why the evolved Northern Zhou and Sui Dynasties were able to unify the whole country was because they "changed Han customs and practiced Han rituals." Not quite. Because the Southern Dynasty, which naturally practiced Han customs and Practiced Han etiquette, did not unify the world. The most important reason for the success of the Northern Wei Dynasty was the political reform in the spirit of great unification, which recreated the State form of the Qin, Han, and Confucian laws.
Rebuild unity
After the collapse of the Western Jin Dynasty, natural and man-made disasters completely collapsed at the grass-roots level. The north is full of "Dock Forts", and the people are dependent on the Qiangzong Hao clan to live together to defend themselves. The chaos of war has led to the abandonment of land, on the one hand, the displaced people have no land, on the other hand, the powerful have taken advantage of the opportunity to seize more and occupy more. The poorer the poorer, the richer the richer.
In 485, the Northern Wei Dynasty implemented the reform of the equalized field system, which nationalized the unowned wasteland and distributed it equally to the poor for farming. Among them, "Lu tian" is to plant grain and levy land endowments, and after the death of the cultivators, it is returned to the state and then distributed to the next batch of young adults; while "sang tian" is a place where mulberry and ma jujube elms are planted, and they do not need to be returned and can be left to their descendants. The Juntian Order also stipulates how to divide the land for the elderly, children, the disabled, and widows. After that, the strong remain strong, but the weak also have a foothold. From the Northern Wei Dynasty to the middle of the Tang Dynasty, the land system of the Zhenguan rule and the Kaiyuan dynasty was based on the juntian system.
Another major reform that coincided with the equalization system was the three-length system. It is aimed at the powerful division in the chaotic world. Haoqiang is the "suzerain", the imperial court does not go to the grass-roots level, through the "suzerain" to indirectly manage, known as the "suzerainship supervision and protection system"12. The three-chief system abolished the suzerainty system and re-established the Qin-Han style of "households and qimin" three-level grass-roots political power ("five families establish a neighbor chief, five neighbors establish a mile long, five li establish a party leader")13. Then select the township official 14 from among the people, responsible for taxation and civil affairs.
Proposing the reform of the juntian system was the Han Confucian Li Anshi. The reform of the three-chief system was proposed by the Han bureaucrat Li Chong. Through the Juntian system, the Northern Wei Dynasty obtained sufficient households, enlistment, and military resources; through the three-chief system, the Northern Wei dynasty ended feudal rule and rebuilt the grass-roots political power; through the bureaucracy, the Northern Wei restored a centralized administrative system. Compared with the forms of "wearing Han clothes" and "changing etiquette", this is the soul of "Han system". 170 years after the fall of the Western Jin Dynasty, the Central Plains actually restored the "Han system" in the hands of ethnic minority dynasties. As Qian Mu said, "The Northern Wei Dynasty was originally established by a tribal feudal system, and if the three chiefs and the Juntian system were captured, the political system gradually changed from clan feudalism to county unification, and the Hu and Han forces gradually reversed"15. In just 30 years, the population and number of troops of the Northern Wei Dynasty quickly surpassed that of the Southern Dynasty. In 520, the population of the Northern Wei Dynasty was nearly 35 million, double that of the Western Jin Dynasty during the Taikang period16. Han peasants joined the Northern Wei army in large numbers, breaking the previous distinction of "fighting in a humble manner and cultivating the fields of the Han people".
While the Northern Wei Dynasty inherited the "Han system", the "Han system" of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Southern Dynasty went to rigidity. The censorship system that originated in the Eastern Han Dynasty gave rise to the jingxue door valves of the fourth dynasty and the three dukes and the bureaucratic hao family that were entangled, and when they were transferred to the Wei and Jin dynasties, they developed into door valve politics. Since the establishment of the Eastern Jin Dynasty was supported by the clan, there was a scene of "the king and the horse, sharing the world". By the time of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Southern Dynasty, there was also a spectacle, although tens of millions of displaced people in the north crossed the south, although the economy of Jiangnan was still prosperous, but "from Sun Wu to Chen's death of the six dynasties, for a period of up to 300 years, the hukou on the Jiangnan household registration almost completely did not have a long time"17. Because these people all defected to the large clan and became "private dependents", they were not registered in the official government, and the imperial court did not grasp the population figures on the one hand, and on the other hand, lost more taxes. The politics of the door valve advocated qing talk, producing the most elegant Wei and Jin demeanor and metaphysical speculation, and social decline and artistic peaks occurred at the same time.
Chen Yinke and Qian Mu both believed that the subsequent Sui and Tang dynasties generally inherited the political system of the Northern Dynasty and the ritual music culture of the Southern Dynasty. Compared with the conformism of the Southern Dynasty, the institutional innovations of the Northern Dynasty such as Juntian and Fubing are more in line with the spirit of the "Han system" unification. This spirit enabled the Sui Dynasty to successfully carry out the first national inventory of households (Dasuo Maoyue) and also created the examination system. Chen Yinke said, "Take the blood of the barbaric essence of saiwai and inject it into the decadent body of the Central Plains culture"18. What is injected is not so much the race as the spirit of reform and innovation.
The victory of the Northern Dynasty over the Southern Dynasty is not a victory of barbarism over civilization, but a victory for who can better inherit the spirit of great unification, and it is the victory of the "new Han system" of the Hu Han Dynasty over the rigid and rigid "old Han system". It is also a family family, and the north is more important to realpolitik than the south, because the northern dynasty looks at the actual results. The same is the study of scripture, the northern dynasty is heavy on practical learning, and the southern dynasty is heavy on metaphysics. Also Confucianism, the Northern Dynasty was heavily used in the court and grass-roots political power, and the Southern Dynasty did not let Han Shi become an official until the late period.
The Southern Dynasty was not useless, and its invention of the "three provinces and six parts system" prototype was absorbed by the later Sui and Tang Dynasties. And the concept of the unification of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Southern Dynasty has never been ambiguous. This was stronger than the Eastern Romans, which existed in Byzantium for 1,000 years and had only one and a half western expeditions for unification. In the 272 years of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Southern Dynasty, there were more than 10 Northern Expeditions. From Zu Ti, Yu Liang, Huan Wen, and Xie An of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, to the Father and Son of Emperor Liu Yu of song, Xiao Yan of Emperor Wu of Liang, and Chen Xuandi of Chen. Although none of them succeeded, no one dared to give up. In the land of China, any ruler who wants to abandon the great unification is equivalent to losing legitimacy.
Sinicization and Romanization
The reason why the Wuhu ethnic group is obsessed with "Sinicization" is because the essence of Han civilization lies in the construction of a super-large-scale political system with long-term peace and stability. Although the nomadic ethnic groups had military superiority, if they did not absorb the institutional experience of the Han civilization, they could not defeat the self-proclaimed "orthodox" Southern Dynasty. The "Han system" is not the customary law of the "Han people", but an unbiased rational system. Yi and Xia do not look at the bloodline to see the customs, but look at the civilization and look at the system. Even if the Han people do not inherit and carry forward the spirit of the "Han system", they will lose the qualifications of the Chinese people.
"Sinicization" does not mean "assimilated by Han Chinese". At the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, there were no "Han people", only "people of the Seven Kingdoms". When Sima Qian wrote the "Records of History", he also used the people of the Seven Kingdoms to depict the different temperaments of the people of the four directions. Since Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, "Han people" have become the self-designation of "the people of the Han Dynasty". Because Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty integrated the legal system of the Qin State, the Confucian thought of the State of Lu, the Huang Laozhi Technique of the State of Qi and the Pipe Economy, the Culture and Art of the State of Chu, the Vertical and Horizontal Punishment of Han Wei, and the military system of Yan Zhao, the "Great Unified Han System" was formed. Since then, those who agree with this system and civilization have become "Han Chinese". It can be said that the "Han People" is the earliest practice of using the political system to construct a "nationality". Although this system was created by the Qin and Han Dynasties, it was no longer exclusive to the Chinese world and became a legacy of classical civilization in East Asia. Chinese characters are also not only "Han Chinese characters", but also an important carrier of classical Civilization in East Asia. Because the lessons learned from the construction of great unification are recorded in the Chinese legal texts and historical books, it is impossible to rebuild and move forward without studying. Wuhu's initiative to Sinicize is not to forget its ancestors and dwarf itself, but to have the ambition to build a super-large-scale political body beyond tribal politics.
A concept similar to "Sinicization" is "Romanization". Although the ancient Roman system was invented by the Romans, it became a classical form of Mediterranean civilization. Latin is no longer the "writing of the Romans", but the carrier of classical European civilization19. When many Germanic barbarian kingdoms abandoned the spoken Latin language, when different Germanic groups were divided into different languages of different kingdoms due to different tribes and dialects, the ancient Roman civilization with Latin as the carrier was submerged under the torrent of barbarism and universal ecclesiastical power, and it was not until the early 12th century that Roman law began to revive20, and it was not until the Renaissance of the 14th and 15th centuries that "humanism" and "national rationality" were rediscovered21. And the source of this "rediscovery" is not in Europe itself. Without the Crusades bringing back ancient Greek and Roman manuscripts from Constantinople, without the classical works of Plato and Aristotle translated by the Arabs, the Renaissance would not have taken place in Europe, and there would have been no Enlightenment. It can be said that the classical civilization of Greece and Rome was not passed down by the surrounding ethnic groups and local residents like the Han civilization, but was recovered from the external "export to domestic sales".
Barbarian invasion
One family, one land kingdom
Barbarians did not come to Rome suddenly. Just as the Han always referred to distant tribes as "Yidi", the Romans also referred to foreign tribes outside the Rhine and Danube as "barbarians", and later as "Germanic". Like the Han Dynasty, Rome built a "Germanic Great Wall" along the border between the two rivers, and it was barely at peace with the Germanic tribes. And when the Northern Xiongnu squeezed all the way from the east, under the "whipping" of the Hun king, the tribes of the steppe broke through this fragile Great Wall again and again. The Germans went deep into the hinterland to plunder and kill, occupying grain-producing and silver-mining areas such as North Africa and Spain. The roman empire's population, tax base, and army were weakening. By 420, only 90,000 field armies remained in the heart of Western Rome to defend 22. Barbarians occupied the country, with the Suvians occupying northwestern Spain (409), the Vandals occupying North Africa (439), the Burgundians occupying northeastern France (457), and the Anglo-Saxons occupying Britain (449).
The above are all small kingdoms of one family and one place, and the real "big kingdoms" are the Goths and Franks. The Gothic kingdoms of East and West occupied all of southern Europe (Spain, Italy and southern France)23, while the Franks conquered much of Western Europe.
According to historians, the barbarians involved in the destruction of the Western Roman Empire in 476 were only 120,000 people24. Later, 80,000 Vandals entered North Africa, 100,000 Franks, Alans, and Burgundians entered Gaul, and Theodoric brought 300,000 Ostrogoths to Italy. From this estimate, the total population of barbarians entering the Roman Empire was between 750,000 and 1 million25.
In contrast, the population of the ethnic groups in the south of the two Jin Dynasties was in the millions. Considering that the population size of Rome and the Western Jin Dynasty was about the same, the number of Germanic groups entering Rome should be much lower than that of the Romans, and it should be easier to "Romanize" than the Wuhu, and Roman civilization should continue in Western Europe like the Han civilization. On the contrary, these Germanic kingdoms, with the exception of a few brief "partial Romanizations," were mostly cleanly and thoroughly "de-Romanized."
For example, when the Goths founded the country, they deliberately lived separately from the conquered Romans, and generally chose to build castles outside the city. The independent castles towering in the countryside are like isolated islands, which have become the origin of the style of rural castles in Europe today. In order to preserve the purity of the bloodline from the assimilation of the Romans, and to keep the spirit of valiantism from being corrupted by Roman culture, the Goths established "dualism".26 In terms of governance, the Goths practiced a system of "ethnic division" and forbade the intermarriage between Romans and Goths; in law, the Goths used barbarian customary law and the Romans used Roman law; in the administrative system, the Goths engaged in military affairs, and the Romans managed the civilities; in terms of culture and education, the Goths were not encouraged to learn Roman Latin and classical culture; in terms of religious belief, the Romans believed in Christianity, and the Goths believed in the Christian "heretical" Arian school. These rules of division were maintained for many years. As the British historian Perry Anderson put it, barbarian nation-building "was founded more in a way that was divided than integrated".27
Fusion that doesn't work
The only exception of the Germanic kingdoms that had undergone "partial romanization" was the Ostrogothic king Theodoric. Although he also engaged in "dualism", he was a barbarian king who understood the value of Roman civilization the most.
Theodoric was a Prince of ostrogoths. Like Liu Yuan, he was educated as a hostage in the Eastern Roman court and was familiar with Roman aristocratic society. However, unlike Liu Yuan, who was proficient in the Zuo Zhuan and Shang Shu, although his language communication was not hindered, he did not like Greek and Latin, and in order to be able to write official documents without signing, he actually used a "mark" to engrave chapter 28.
Theodoric took Western Rome and established himself king of Italy, and although he did not allow the Goths to mix with the Romans, he retained the civil service system of Western Rome, which was still governed by consuls, treasurers, and ministers of state. He ordered the Romans to be officials and the Goths to be soldiers. The only benefit the Gothic soldiers received was the demand for "one-third" of the land from the Roman village landowners, the least of all the barbarian occupations.
Theodoric was benevolent, and under his rule the Romans completely retained their clothing, language, laws, and customs. Even for religion, Theodoric was very tolerant. Despite his Arian faith, he personally went to the cemetery of St. Peter to offer sacrifices. He never forced any Christian to convert to his denomination.
Theodoric, in particular, retained the power of the Roman widows. The most valued great aristocrat, Boethius, was the greatest ecclesiastical philosopher after Augustine. His translations of Euclid's geometry, Pythagorean music, Nicomachus's mathematics, Archimedes' mechanics, Ptolemaic's astronomy, Plato's philosophy, and Aristotle's logic have been called "the last Romans" by historians.
Theodoric entrusted the government to Boethius and made Boetheus's two younger sons Roman consuls early. Roman widows and Gothic upstarts often quarreled, and when the Roman nobles denounced Theodoric's nephew for occupying the Romans' property, he immediately forced his nephew to return without blinking an eye. His "favoritism" towards the Roman widows created resentment among his own people, with 20,000 Gothic soldiers "maintaining peace and discipline with anger" in Italy.29 During the 33 years of Theodoric's reign, Italy and Spain maintained the style of old Rome, magnificent cities, elegant senators, grand festivals, and devout religions.
The English historian Gibbon said that the Romans and Ostrogoths could have been completely ethnically integrated, and that "the unity of the Goths and Romans would have allowed the happy life of Italy to be passed on from generation to generation, and a new people, composed of free subjects and knowledgeable soldiers, could have triumphed over each other in noble virtues and gradually arose"30. Easy to say. The deep conflict between the Goths and the Romans began with religion. Theodoric tolerated the Church of Rome, but the Church of Rome refused to tolerate Judaism and burned the Synagogue to rob it of its property. Theodoric punished the Christians who had committed the crimes in order to treat them equally. Christians held a grudge against him and frequently colluded with the Byzantine Church in Eastern Rome behind his back.
In 523, the Roman patriarch Albinus was revealed to send a letter to the Eastern Roman Emperor, asking him to overthrow the Gothic kingdom and return the Romans to "freedom". The letters were intercepted, and Theodoric was furious and arrested the rebellious senators. At this point, Boethius stepped forward and defended himself— "If they are guilty, I am guilty too!" If I am not guilty, they are also innocent! Although he was close to the Goths, he chose to side with the Roman nobility at key moments. 31
Gibbon concludes that no matter how tolerant and benevolent the Goths are, they will never be recognized by the Romans, and that "even the most moderate form of the Gothic kingdom will make a Roman 'free spirit' intolerable" and that "these ungrateful subjects can never be sincerely tolerant of the origins, religion, or even character of the gothsayer"32.
By this time, Theodoric was in his twilight years. He found that "he had toiled all his life for the people of Rome and received nothing but hatred; he was outraged by this unrequited love." 33 Finally, he executed Boethius. Deliberately in a "least Roman" way— depriving Boetheus of his right to defend himself before his death. Boethius was shackled before his execution and wrote "The Solace of Philosophy" in the tower prison. This book became a must-read for students in the Middle Ages. After the execution of Boethius, Theodoric was in extreme mental pain, and soon fell ill and died, moaning and groaning for three days and three nights before dying.
Ten years after Theodoric's death, the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian, with his zeal for the elimination of heresy and his desire to regain his homeland, launched a "holy war" against the Ostrogoths. On the one hand, the Byzantine Church issued an edict to eliminate the Arians; on the other hand, Justinian used 5250 kilograms of gold to actively ask for peace with Persia, stabilizing the East and freeing his hands to march west. In 535, the famous general Belisarius was sent to fight a 20-year war and destroy the Ostrogothic kingdom.
Rome abandoned Rome
Have the Western Romans, who have returned to the embrace of Eastern Rome, fulfilled their wishes? The answer was unexpected.
When Belisarius attacked the Ostrogoths, the nobles and people of Western Rome joined forces. It was through the secret reception of the Roman noble bishop Severius that Belisarius entered the city of Rome without bloodshed.
The Enthusiasm of the Western Romans for the "King's Master" did not last long. Due to the long offensive and defensive battles, the Western Romans were not accustomed to suffering, first because they could not bathe and sleep, and then for the lack of food, they cursed the Eastern Roman army34. Belisa wrote to Emperor Justinian, "Although the Romans are friendly to us at the moment, if their plight continues, perhaps they will not hesitate to choose a path more in their own interests"35.
The complaints of the Western Romans caused Bishop Severius, who had helped the Eastern Romans to open the city gates, to plan to open the locks again at night, to cover the gates, and to help the Goths sneak back into the city to attack Belisarius to end the siege. But the conspiracy leaked out and Severius was immediately exiled. Belisarius no longer trusted the Western Romans, changing the locks of the 15 gates of the Roman walls twice a month, often changing the Roman self-defense forces guarding the gates.
This "one-to-one-no" transformation has only been 4 months before and after.
Those who abandoned Byzantium were not only nobles, but also commoners. Many Western Roman peasants and slaves rejoined the old Gothic troops; many unpaid barbarian mercenaries also joined the Gothic army, attacking the Liberators together.
The Western Romans were neither loyal to the Ostrogoths nor to the Eastern Romans. They only value their own interests, and it is best for no one to care. As the scholar Helmut Hemitz pointed out, "For many Romans in the western provinces, the 'fall of Rome' was not a disaster. In fact, a cooperative relationship was formed between the local elite and the barbarians, Roman warlords, and client kings on smaller units of power"36.
The Western Romans also had reasons to oppose the Eastern Romans, because The Byzantines did not consider the local livelihood and only wanted to collect taxes. After the war, northern Italy was reduced to ruins, the economy was degraded, and the population was decimated; the general who succeeded Belisarius, Narcissus, established a military junta and imposed predatory taxes for 15 years. The Byzantine tax collectors called them "Alexander scissors" because one-twelfth of each tax could be legally appropriated for themselves, which provoked a frenzied drive among the tax collectors37. The "tax package system" in which private individuals extracted commissions from state taxes was a consistent bad government from the Macedonian Empire to Rome, which Byzantium in turn turned into a state act. At the same time, Byzantium did not restore the Roman system of governance, and the Roman Senate, which lasted for thousands of years, ended.
As a barbarian, Theodoric struggled to maintain the Roman system, but Byzantium, as a Roman, swept it away. European historians believe that without the Gothic Wars, Roman classical civilization would not have disappeared so quickly into the Middle Ages. This is to blame the proud Roman aristocracy for never accepting a "barbarian" man as emperor, no matter how benevolent he was to Rome.
The barbarians after the Ostrogothics never deliberately "Romanized" again. They simply abandoned the Roman political system and went their own way altogether. The customs of Roman life lasted for more than a century only along inertia in parts of Europe.
Zhonghua chooses Zhonghua
Very similar to Theodoric and Boethius, there are two pairs of Chinese characters. One pair was Former Qin's Jian Jian and Wang Meng, and the other was Tuoba Tao and Cui Hao of Northern Wei.
Let's start with the first pair. Jian Jian was the most virtuous monarch in the Five Hus, and Wang Meng was the leading celebrity in the "Northern Occupied Areas". At that time, the Eastern Jin Dynasty also had a northern expedition, and the general Huan Wen entered Guanzhong, and the celebrities in the world had high expectations for him. Wang Meng saw him, and the two sides touched each other's bottoms. Huan Wen used the high-ranking official Hou Jue to invite Wang Meng to the south. Wang Meng refused. The first reason for the refusal was that Huan Wen did not really want to engage in "great unification." Wang Meng said to him, you and Chang'an are close at hand, but you have not crossed the Bashui, and everyone already knows that you do not have the sincerity to unify the world.38
Wang Meng chose Jian Jian. Because Jian Jian aspires to great unification. He is a member of the Yu clan, and in his life, regardless of his obedience or disobedience, his mind and mind are "mixed with six families, and the same is formed by a naked son." He had not yet digested the humble nobles of Chang'an, preferring to venture into the Southern Jin Dynasty, saying, "Only the southeast corner has not been kingized." I think about the world's differences, and I have not tasted food and quit." Only "unity" can enable him to attain the "Mandate of Heaven".39 As a hero of hundred battles, Jian Jian is not ignorant of risks, but the ultimate ambition of "great unification" does not care about personal success or failure. This is the same as Zhuge Liang's "Wang Ye is not biased". The Eastern Jin Dynasty was obviously capable, but it never wholeheartedly carried out the Northern Expedition. Although Jian Jian was ridiculed by historians for his great defeat at Shuishui, in terms of his original mission, compared with the north and south, he made a judgment.
The second reason why Wang Meng rejected Huan Wen was that the Eastern Jin Dynasty's way of governing was different from Wang Meng's ideals. The Eastern Jin Dynasty was too particular about door valve politics, and Wang Meng's ideal was a Confucian-parallel Han system. On the one hand, it is necessary for the Legalists to "clear the law and severe punishment, and forbid the strong and powerful"; on the other hand, it is necessary to "pull out the stagnant, show the talents, persuade the peasants to be sang, and teach with shame."
The Eastern Jin Dynasty served as the first official according to the door, while Jian Jian selected elites from the lower levels, known as "Duoshi" 40. In the Eastern Jin Dynasty, "half of the household registrations in the world entered the valve", and Jian Jian went straight to the grass-roots level, personally or sent envoys to inspect the Han people and "Rong Yi planting"41. The Eastern Jin Dynasty engaged in metaphysics and preached elegance for politics. And Jian Jian forbade the study of Lao Zhuang and Tu Chen, looking for people who "learn to be Confucian and talented".
The Former Qin of the Qi people is more in line with Wang Meng's understanding of the "Han system" than the Eastern Jin Dynasty of the Han people. In the hearts of true scholars like Wang Meng, "Han" is not a bloodline race, but an institutional ideal. The ethnic groups in the Chinese world, whether Hu Han, did not use "blood" or "religion" as the basis for dividing ethnic groups as in the Roman world. If Theodoric had been born in China, he would have had countless Hu HanHaojie assisting him in his struggle for orthodoxy.
Let's talk about the second pair. Tuoba Tao was a humble male lord, and Cui Hao was a descendant of the Northern Han clan, who was in the Three Dynasties of the Northern Wei Dynasty, who had extensive knowledge of the History of Hundreds of Families, was proficient in Xuanxiang Yin and Yang, and was good at scheming, comparing himself to Zhang Liang. On the one hand, Cui Hao advised Tuoba Tao to expel Rouran, wipe out Bactria and eliminate Northern Yan, completing the great unification of Northern China42. On the other hand, Cui Hao promoted Tuoba Tao to carry out the reform of "civil rule". Abolish the system of six lords of the military nobility, restore the civil bureaucracy of Shangshu Province, and place the secretary province side by side; rectify the grass-roots political power, examine the rule of local officials; and revise the laws three times, and absorb a large number of provisions of the Central Plains Laws. Cui Hao also advocated the great integration of the Xianbei elite and the Han elite, tuoba tao obeyed the plan, and recruited hundreds of Han celebrities into the central and local governments on a large scale.
Tuoba Tao was extremely fond of Cui Hao, and personally visited his mansion to ask about the major affairs of the military state, and ordered musicians to compose music and praise for him. The Xianbei nobles were extremely dissatisfied with Emperor Taiwu's "partiality" to Cui Hao, and there was even an attempted coup d'état in which the Xiongnu nobles conspired with the Xianbei nobles.
Like Boethius, Choi Ho was also unable to die because of his involvement in the sense of ethnicity. When he was majoring in the history of the Northern Wei Dynasty, he recorded old customs such as "receiving and inheriting marriage" in the Xianbei tribal era, and carved a stone stele to stand next to the capital city main road. At this time, the Xianbei people had accepted the ethics of the Central Plains and claimed to be descendants of Yanhuang, and they were very angry about this kind of "exposing the ugly". Just in time for the Northern Expedition of Emperor Wen of the Southern Dynasty, the Xianbei nobles accused Cui Hao of insulting his ancestors, and it was rumored that Cui Hao was plotting to defect to the Song Dynasty- because the Cui Hao family was too large, and its own clan and in-laws had different branches in the Southern Dynasty. Tuoba Tao was furious and exterminated the Qinghe Cui clan. At this time, Cui Hao was already a septuagenarian and was humiliated. 43
Will the fusion of han and Xianbei suddenly stop because of Cui Hao's prison? The story of the Xianbei and Han Chinese is different from that of the Goths and Romes.
Unlike the Repeated Betrayal of the Goths by the Roman nobility, the various branches of the Cui clan remained in the Northern Wei after the destruction of the Qinghe Cui clan. When Emperor Xiaowen ascended the throne, the Cui clan of Qinghe was restored to the head of the four surnames, and Cui Guang, Cui Liang, and others were restored to Northern Wei courtiers and rebuilt the history of Northern Wei. In particular, Cui Hong, collecting various remnants of historical materials, compiled the 100 volumes of the "Spring and Autumn of the Sixteen Kingdoms", which recorded the historical facts of the Wuhu regimes.
Unlike the Goths, who rushed to Romanization because of the betrayal of the Romans, Cui Hao's case did not make Tuoba Tao "ruined by people", and he still ordered the children of the Xianbei nobles to learn Confucianism. Although Cui Hao is dead, his government is still there. Later Emperor Xiaowen pushed the Sinicization reform to the peak. Neither the Han nor the Xianbei construct politics with personal honor and disgrace, and they have a deeper understanding of history.
Frankish alienation
When the Goths disappeared from the European stage, the god of fate descended on the Franks.
The Franks were the only group in the "Barbarian Migration" that was not considered a "Great Migration". They have long lived on the Coast of Belgium and along the Rhine, but only slightly south from their homeland. At about the same time as the Ostrogoths occupied Italy, the Franks occupied the Roman gaulish province, founded the Merovingian dynasty, roughly unified the territory of present-day France in the 6th century, and changed dynasties to carolingians in the mid-7th century. Charlemagne conquered western Europe except Spain, close to the Western Roman Empire, and stood side by side with Byzantium.
Why were the Ostrogoths wiped out by the Romans while the Franks grew? The main reason was that Clovis, king of the Franks, converted to Roman Christianity. Clovis was known for his cruelty, and he had just finished attending a religious conference when he was able to slash people in the head with an axe. But just because he changed his religion, and Theodoric refused to change, the great power of the Christian Church spared no effort to support him.
Apart from the christianity, the Franks had little in common with Roman civilization.
The Roman emperor wore a laurel crown on his short hair, and the Frankish kings always kept long hair with barbarian symbols, known as the "king with long hair".
Rome was an urban civilization with triumphal arches and palaces, but the Frankish kings preferred to live on farms, surrounded by barns for cattle and chickens, and the grain and wine produced by slaves could be sold. Rome was the central fiscal revenue, and the Frankish royal family was the "private estate" economy.
Roman law, though internally and externally distinct, at least formally maintained the internal equality of Roman citizens. However, Frankish customary law was hierarchical. The Salic Code solemnly declares that the lives of the Franks were worth more than those of the conquered Gallic Romans. Killing a Frankish ordinary person pays 200 Su, while the Gaulese ordinary person pays 50 to 100 Su is enough 44. This distinction between the conquerors and the conquered was transformed into an ethnic difference between the Franks and the Gauls, and thus into a class distinction between the nobles and the commoners. Before the French Revolution, the aristocratic scholar Branvieli also argued that the French nobility were frankish descendants who had conquered Gaul and were supposed to inherit the privileges of their ancestors, while the French third estate, which was descended from the Gallic Romans, deserved to be ruled and were not qualified for political rights.45
Roman law is evidence-based and juridically supported by jurisprudence. The barbarian law, on the other hand, uses a simple adjudication method and divine judgment, such as the fire adjudication method and the water adjudication method46. When the evidence was insufficient, they relied on "duels", and the weak Romans often gave up prosecution because they could not defeat the tall Franks. This kind of barbarian habit of not speaking about fists was later revered by many people as aristocratic chivalry.
The upper middle and upper classes of Western Rome had a sophisticated financial and municipal bureaucracy, with 40,000 officials at its peak. The Franks completely abandoned bureaucracy and implemented the feudal system of mining. Caiyi refers to the king's reward of land to his subjects, forming a relationship of allegiance between the king and the vassals using land and military service as a link. Initially, the land could not be hereditary, but over time, the land was turned into hereditary property by powerful nobles, forming a hierarchical feudal system of European medieval kings, large, medium, and small lords. The lords enjoyed administrative and judicial and military financial powers in Caiyi, and they were born and killed in one, as if they were independent kingdoms. Montesquieu said that after Charlie Matt reformed the system, the country was divided into many countries, and there was no need to enforce public laws, and there was no need to send special officials to the localities to inspect and supervise judicial and political matters.47
The other barbarian kingdoms that the Franks had annexed in the War of Unification did not build provinces and bring them under central administration, as in Rome, but were granted to the nobility and churches, maintaining the autonomy of the lords.48 The so-called king is the greatest landlord. After the death of several generations of Frankish kings, the land was divided equally among their sons. The king's power was localized, and the king was everywhere. After the Germanic tribes, it was the Slavic tribes that invaded Eastern Europe on a large scale, and the latter was the same as the former's way of building the country and choosing the system. Europe after Rome was never unified again. Only by understanding this history will we understand the future political evolution of Europe.
Feudal politics and civil politics
With the institutional legacies of the Roman Empire looming, why did the Franks choose feudalism?
Both the Roman legal system and the bureaucracy were recorded in Latin codes and histories, but the Germanic leaders did not allow their people to learn roman culture, so they could not grasp these historical experiences. For example, gothic boys can only learn their mother tongue and cannot learn Latin, and whoever learns will be scolded.
The Germanic language did not form a written script until the 8th century. Due to the refusal to learn the Greco-Roman script, the Germanic tribes generally could not write for the early 300 years of the Middle Ages (from 476-800 AD). The inquisitive Charlemagne spoke crappy Latin, but still could not write. The Holy Roman Emperors could not even write. Otto the Great, who was at the same time as the Chinese Song Taizu, began to read and hyphenate at the age of 30, Conrad II, who was at the same time as Song Renzong, could not read letters, and the vast majority of feudal aristocrats in Europe were illiterate.
If you can't write, you can't handle complex documents, you can't build a civil bureaucracy, you can't run sophisticated Roman law. As the historian Bloch put it, "Although most lords and many great nobles were (nominally) administrators and judges: as administrators they were incapable of studying a report or a bill for themselves; as judges, their judgments were recorded in a language incomprehensible to the courts".49 If it is impossible to run the bureaucracy for management, it is only possible to engage in a simple and easy feudal system, and does not have the ability to manage a huge land. At that time, the only people who could cultivate the intellectual elite were monasteries and church schools. The princes had to rely on the clergy of the territory for administration. Charlemagne appointed bishops as diplomats and inspectors50, and most of his edicts, proclamations, and exhortations were written by the English monk Alchen. For centuries, the ministers of the Frankish kings were headed by ecclesiastical personnel. The clergy were not only interpreters of the spiritual world, but also masters of executive power.
This is different from the church-state relationship in the Roman Empire. The "Pope" was established by an edict of the Roman Emperor (445)51, and in general the imperial power was higher than the ecclesiastical power. But in the Frankish kingdom, the church ruled the world with the royal power. Not only did the Church participate fully in politics, but it also became a high lord, successfully resisting the dynastic taxation attempts on many occasions52. The Frankish transfer of executive power became the basis for the future rise of the "universal church". Originally, there were also precious legacies in the Germanic tradition, such as representative democracy, which arose from their military democracy rather than from the Roman bureaucracy, but they failed to graft the Roman system well, resulting in centuries of religious monopoly.
Some scholars say that the Germans chose autonomy and feudalism out of "free nature." Montesquieu believed that the Germanic peoples naturally preferred a "separate" and "independent" way of life. "The Germanic dwellings were divided by swamps, river moors, forests... These tribes prefer to live apart. ...... When these tribes are separated, they are all free and independent; when they are mixed, they are still independent. Each ethnic group shares a state; but each has its own government; its territory is common; and its tribes are distinct"53. As a result, the Germanic kingdoms were independently dispersed and did not seek to integrate with each other, forming a polycentric pattern.
China's Wuhu are also grassland and forest nomads; they are also divided by deserts, forests, and valleys; they also love freedom; and they are also subject to the natural "dispersion" of nomadic society. But wuhu did not return to the autonomous division route more suitable for nomadic nature, but took the initiative to restore a multi-ethnic centralized bureaucracy. The regime of Wuhu was a multi-ethnic regime, never a one-nation regime.54 The regime of wuhu was a multi-ethnic bureaucratic politics, never using religion as an agent. Most of the Wuhu monarchs were firm believers in Buddhism, but when they made political decisions, they never needed to rely on Buddhism as a basis for judgment, nor did they need Buddhism to mobilize the grassroots, and they had a developed civil bureaucracy and the ability to use the bureaucracy. The Northern Wei Dynasty Buddhas are extremely popular, and the famous Buddhist grottoes are chiseled into this dynasty. The monasteries are in the tens of thousands, the monks are in the millions, they own a large amount of temple property, and they are large landowners like the Frankish Church.55 However, the Northern Dynasty monarchs were not bound by religion, but instead took the initiative to close the temples, recover the land property, and reintegrate the population into the household.
Divide the world and mix the world
In 800 AD, Charlemagne accepted the coronation of the Pope "Holy Roman Emperor". Did the Frankish Empire become "Roman" because of this coronation? European academics have debated for hundreds of years. Historians have to admit that franks were half-hearted about the "Roman successor." Charlemagne once said that he did not like the title of Roman Emperor, and that if he had known that the Pope wanted to be crowned, he would not have entered St. Peter's Church56. Charlemagne claimed that the empress retained the title of "King of Franks and Lombardy", and did not even mention "Roman Emperor" in the famous Edict of Division in 806.
The Franks did not admire Rome. In 961, Holy Roman Emperor Otto I sent a Lombard bishop on a mission to Byzantium. The Byzantines said he was not qualified to represent the "Romans". The bishop replied that it was an insult to say the word "Romans" in the Franks57.
The frankish desire to separate from Rome is most clearly reflected in frankish history books.
In the golden age of the Roman Empire, the Roman chronicle was "a hundred rivers returning to the sea", although there were different kingdoms and many ethnic groups, but eventually merged into the Roman world, "God's plan" was realized in the Roman Empire. However, in the self-compiled histories of the Goths and Franks, the independent sources of their own tribes were emphasized, Rome was excluded from history, and the "armed occupation" of the western provinces by barbarians became "natural inheritance". This "history-making movement" culminated in frank's Fridega Chronicles—the "Roman Order" never even existed, and the "Roman world" began as a series of parallel developments of races and kingdoms, and eventually did not merge into the Roman Empire. The Romans were just one of many people.
The tool for accomplishing this transformation is the concept of "gens".58 "Ethnicity" strengthened the Germanic self-identity, thereby liberating the Germanic world from the Roman order to which it had once depended. "Ethnic division" became a central feature of the Germanic world.
The Charlemagne Empire consisted of different "ethnic collectives" . Court historians portrayed the Charlemagne Empire as a confederation of Franks, Bavarians, Alemannis, Turingians, Saxons, Burgundians, and Aquidans, with only one Christianity in common. The European view of history thus moved from "one Roman rule" to "multi-ethnic division of the world".
However, Wuhu's view of history is completely different from that of the barbarians. It is not the "division of the world" of ethnic isolation, but the "mixing up of the world" of ethnic integration.59
In terms of ethnic identity, European barbarian history strives to completely cut the relationship between this ethnic group and Rome, looking for the myth of the distant ancestors of their own ethnic group, and proving that they are "outsiders" in the Roman world; while the Chinese Wuhu history books all try to argue that the origin of the tribe is inextricably linked to Huaxia, and most of the Wuhu monarchs want to prove themselves as descendants of Yanhuang from the geographical bloodline, and are relatives of Huaxia 60.
In terms of ethnic governance, the European barbarians set artificial divisions through laws and never practiced ethnic mixing. Wuhu has always advocated multi-ethnic mixed living. The nomadic tribes of the two Han Dynasties were still under the dual administration of chiefs and Han court officials, while the population policy developed by The Wuhu themselves was a more thorough migration, great integration, and great household formation. Wuhu's large-scale migration has reached more than 50 times 61, often millions, and all of them are in the core area 62. The Northern Wei Dynasty was more thorough, directly shouting the slogan of "separating the various departments and settling in the land", breaking the tribal chieftain system and implementing the formation of households and the people.
In terms of world view, the European barbarian view of history insists that "race" identity determines civilization identity, while the Chinese Wuhu view of history emphasizes that civilization identity is not determined by ethnicity but by virtue. The Wuhu monarchs loved to quote Mencius's phrase that "Shun is a person of Dongyi, and King Wen is a person of Xiyi, as long as he is virtuous and blessed in China, he is a saint of China"63, according to which he declares, "The emperor is impermanent, and only virtue is granted."
On the question of unification, the European barbarian view of history held that the Roman world should not be unified and should be ruled by multiple races. The Chinese View of Wuhu History holds that the Chinese world should be unified and cannot be divided, and no matter which ethnic group is in charge, it regards great unification as the ultimate goal of politics.
In terms of political construction, the European barbarian view of history was not keen on inheriting the legacy of the Western Roman Empire, let alone competing with Eastern Rome for orthodoxy. The Chinese Wuhu view of history uses various methods to place the regime in the orthodox sequence of the Chinese dynasty, and competes with the Southern Dynasty for orthodoxy every year.
After 300 years of non-stop mixed and integrated, the Hu Han ethnic group eventually formed a new ethnic community- the Sui and Tang people. Today,Chinese in the north, their bloodlines are all Hu and Han fusion, and even the Han people are also a large ethnic group formed by the fusion of Zhuxia and surrounding ethnic groups during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. In such a great fusion, it is not who assimilates whom, but the mutualization of many parties. The regime spirals and disappears, the ethnic groups spin up and down, and because any ethnic group that comes to power adheres to the policy of mixed residence and integration, the number of "Han Chinese" is also more and more integrated. This brings us back to an old question, which dynasty should the Han chinese blood gene be used as the standard? Because the history of the large-scale integration of the Chinese nation began as early as 2,000 years ago.
If you do not understand such a historical view, you will not understand why the Wuhu monarchs, although they all have ancestral customs, their political models are the Han emperors and not their heroic ancestors.64 Without understanding such a historical view, it is impossible to understand why Wuhu refused to separate from Rome like the Franks, whether strong or weak, and had to take the "great unification of Huayi" as the ideal.65
If the ancient Germanic people were accustomed to "free separation", then the various ethnic groups in China always had the "aspiration of the world". The Lombards, when confronted with the ridicule of the Eastern Roman emperors, replied that we are not rare Romans. However, when the Northern Wei people faced the ridicule of the Southern Dynasty, they called the Southern Dynasty "Daoyi" and called themselves the Orthodox Chinese. Because the Northern Wei Dynasty not only owned the Central Plains, but also had a cultural "ceremony for changing customs and customs, and the grandeur of the liturgical charter"66.
This is not a lie. Beginning with Liu Yu's usurpation of the throne in the last years of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, there was a phenomenon of a large number of intellectuals in the Southern Dynasty "running north". In the later period of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Luoyang was built into a "big city" of hundreds of square kilometers, eagerly absorbing the official system of the Southern Dynasty, the music of clothing and ceremonies, and the literature of calligraphy and painting, and innovating them.67 There are significantly more great Confucians in scripture that run through the north and the south than in the Southern Dynasty 68. So that in 529, after chen Qingzhi of the Southern Dynasty invaded Luoyang, he sighed after a war with the northerners that the southerners always thought that "the north of the Yangtze River is full of Yidi", and now they know that "the Yiguanshi clan is in the Central Plains". The Northern Dynasty was "rich in etiquette and yinfu in characters", and it was "illiterate and unable to be transmitted by mouth", so "the northern people are not heavy? ”69。 It is necessary not only to achieve military victory, but also to integrate innovation culturally. The spirit of wuhu is unimaginable to the ancient Germanic people in Europe.
Wuhu succeeded. The Northern Dynasty and the Southern Dynasty together shaped the sui and Tang culture that followed. Compared with the simple simplicity of Han Dynasty literature and art, Sui and Tang literature and art are more majestic and broad. The grotto statues of Northern Wei and Northern Qi and Sui and Tang dynasties are a blend of Gandhara art, Gupta art and Wei and Jin style. The seven and nine pieces of music of the Sui and Tang Dynasties included both the Central Plains tunes ("Qing Shang Trick" and "Wen Kang Trick") and the exotic music prevalent in the Northern Dynasty ("Goryeo Trick", "Tianzhu Trick", "An Guo Trick", "Guizi Trick"), and the pipa was born in the Western Regions and became the object of the Tang people's expression of heart songs. North Asian and Persian styles are not seen as "heterogeneous" cultures, but are loved by all Chinese ethnic groups70.
Did Wuhu lose his self, or did he win the bigger self?
If we do not understand such "aspirations under the heavens", we will misunderstand "ethnic integration" as "ethnic assimilation", and we will misunderstand "cultural integration" as "cultural appropriation". If we think in terms of the narrow paradigm of European nationalism, we will always be in the political culture of ethnic identity.
East and West Comparison
Autonomous with counties
Different views of history come from different civilizations. The Chinese Wuhu carried forward the "logic of unity" of Chinese civilization, and the European barbarians amplified the "logic of division" of Roman civilization.
Although the Roman Empire had an upper-class civil service system, its essence was still grass-roots autonomy. No matter what kind of political system was adopted in Europe after that, its national governance framework naturally gave birth to urban autonomy, ethnic autonomy, and lord autonomy. From the city-state democracies of ancient Greece to the autonomous cities of the Roman Empire; from the feudal kingdoms with castles in the early Middle Ages to the Italian urban republics of the late Middle Ages (such as Venice and Genoa); from the Republics of the North American states established under the "Small Republic" program to the nation-states of Europe under the "one nation, one country" model.
No matter what era, in the Institutional View of History and Value Identity of Europeans, grassroots autonomy is the core code. From Tacitus's discovery of "barbarian freedom", to Montesquieu's praise of the character of the barbarians in independence and separation,71 to The discovery of the spirit of representativeship that originated in the Anglo-Saxon tradition of local self-government,72 to Tocqueville's investigation of the township autonomy that underpins American democracy,73 all look at it, as Chanmu put it, "Looking at a history of Europe, they have always been torn apart since Greece, their own states, and they have not cooperated with each other." Although facing a great enemy and facing a crisis ahead, the inability of its various regions to integrate and coordinate is still the same. ...... Western history seems complex and simple, its complexity on the outside and simple on the inside. ...... The so-called British and French in Western history are only like a chemical unit. The Chinese in Chinese history is like a chemical mixture. ”74
In contrast, no matter what kind of superstructure China builds, the basis of its national governance is the grass-roots political power at the county and township levels75. As Fenner put it, China is the "inventor" of the modern form of bureaucracy.76 Since the Qin and Han Dynasties created a unified centralized county system, the construction of grass-roots political power has been incorporated into the civil service system dispatched and managed by the central government. Although there have been very brief feudal divisions in history, the unified centralized county system has always been the mainstream. Although China has a little variation of the feudal system, such as the food system without political real power, such as the grass-roots official-gentry cooperation system, these are limited autonomy, state power has long been embedded in the various cells of the social structure, and there is no European-style grass-roots autonomy.
Grassroots autonomy and grassroots political power, two sets of civilization logic.
Looking at the Qin and Han Dynasties from the perspective of Rome, they will think that the weakness of centralized power lies in the fact that it is necessary to move the whole body at one time, and local rebellions can easily spread into national riots. Compared to the rebellions that occurred in Roman history, which were all local (except for the Bakaudian Revolt), this was the benefit of grassroots autonomy. Fenner argued that "the Chinese peasant revolt, which threatened the survival of the Han Empire, never happened in Rome"77.
Looking at Rome from the perspective of the Qin and Han Dynasties, it would be strange that the clash of civilizations caused by ethnicity and religion in Europe after Rome could last for thousands of years. From the 4th to the 6th century, there were 6 Wars between Byzantine and Persian; from the 7th to 11th centuries, there were 400 Arab and Byzantine Wars; from the 8th to the 15th centuries, there were 800 years of Spanish Christian and Muslim wars; from the 10th to the 13th centuries, there were 9 Crusades; from the 13th to 15th centuries, there were Byzantine Wars against the Ottomans and the Scottish War against Britain; from 1455 to 1485, there were 30 years of religious wars involving all of Europe, and almost no century was a true reconciliation between peoples and religions. It can be said that in terms of "civil rule", Chinese civilization is ahead of the entire ancient world. Even Fenner, who considered "Roman autonomy" to be superior, had to admit that "the Han Empire was different from other countries and empires (especially Rome) in that it despised military glory." It was an empire that wholeheartedly opposed militarism. It is characterized by 'indoctrination', which is what Chinese call 'wen'. This religious tolerance and advocacy of civilized indoctrination constituted the glorious ideal of the Empire"78.
Western societies like to live in "small communities", from city-state politics to feudal autonomy to small republics to American rural autonomy, and eventually evolved into liberal individual rights supremacy. Chinese society also has various "small communities", such as families, three elders, squires and various non-governmental organizations, but always pursues a "big community", that is, "home country and world".
Many Western scholars, such as Downing, Charles Tilly, McNeill, and Michael Mann, confidently believed that the division and chaos of the Western Middle Ages had brought progress. Because the series of wars that took place in pre-modern Europe brought out the standing army of Europe, the rational bureaucracy of Europe, and the modern nation-state and industrial capitalism of Europe. 79 This low-intensity, centuries-old local war, which is difficult to eliminate each other at once, allows the defeated side to constantly sum up experience and promotes the cumulative development of technology. The split and class nature of feudal society is conducive to the emergence of commercial capital, and the emergence of commercially controlled independent cities will make it easier to move towards capitalism. This system of feudalism, weak states, and multi-national competition is the reason why modern Europe has surpassed all ancient civilizations.
The implication is that China is too unified, without a thousand years of local wars and a pluralistic system of competition; China is too centralized, and there are no autonomous cities controlled by hereditary aristocrats and merchants, so it cannot produce industrial capitalism. Therefore, "great unification" has become an obstacle to historical progress. But if you want to ask Chinese, are you willing to endure a thousand years of "warring states jungle" and "tribal conflicts" in exchange for the birth of primitive capitalism? The mainstream answer must be no. During the Spring and Autumn Period of China, there was a system of multinational competition and sub-feudalism. The reason why Qin was able to unify the six kingdoms against the current, and the reason why Han still adhered to the "qin system" under the public opinion of "violent Qin", was precisely because the 300-year super-large-scale war of the Warring States had enabled the people to reach a consensus that "the world fights endlessly to have a prince". It is not that China has not gone through this stage, but has experienced and abandoned this stage. The so-called "standing army" and "rational bureaucracy" existed in China during the Qin and Han dynasties, 1800 years before Europe. The real test of the modern transformation of Chinese civilization is how to achieve order and freedom at the same time on the basis of maintaining great unity, and how to have the beauty of both the "large community" and "small community" systems at the same time, which is a higher standard than Western pluralistic liberalism.
China and Inner Asia
Western-centrists often use Rome and the Franks as examples to understand other civilizations. For example, frankly, the "composite monarchy" says that the patriarchal status of Charlemagne's "Frankish and Lombard king" is the main one, while the Roman emperor status is the second. The Charlemagne Empire was a multi-ethnic confederation. As long as the emperor issued an edict, it could be divided into Italy, France and Germany. Some scholars have shifted this paradigm to China. For example, new Qing historians in the United States claim that the emperor of the Qing Dynasty was also a composite monarch, and the emperor of the Qing Dynasty was also a Manchu patriarch, a Han emperor, a Khan of the Mongols, and the incarnation of Manjushri Bodhisattva of Tibetan Buddhism. The unification of the Central Plains, Northeast China, Mongolia, and Tibet all relied on the emperor's "multiple identities" as the only connection, and once the Qing dynasty imperial family collapsed, the various ethnic groups could run freely. This completely ignores the Manchu-Mongolian-Tibetan and Central Plains governance systems. The Qing Dynasty implemented a workaround county system in the northeast, and soon abolished the Manchu and Han segregation policies in cities. Even if it was a tribal rule for a while, it eventually transitioned to a county system, such as the Mongolian alliance flag system and the southern land reform. The chinese Hu monarchs' understanding of their identity is first and foremost that of the Chinese emperor rather than the patriarch, symbolizing the legitimacy of ruling without distinction between Hu and Han Chinese.
Some Western scholars also use "cultural symbols" and "identity" to interpret Chinese history. Dividing Xinjiang, Tibet, Mongolia and even the three eastern provinces into "inner Asia", it is keen to find cultural identity from "Inner Asia" in the regimes established by northern ethnic groups from the Northern Wei to the Liaojin and Yuanqing, and divides them into "infiltration dynasties" and "conquest dynasties". They judged the Inner Asianity of these dynasties based on the customs and rituals peculiar to some northern ethnic groups. For example, gao huan let the Northern Wei emperor succeed to the throne on the "black felt" carried by seven people; such as the Mongolian retained ear worship of ancestors and the customs of traveling the country and walking in the temple; such as the qing dynasty's popular shaman jumping gods, "pole sacrifices" and other grassland sacrifice ceremonies. This is not to clarify the difference between "etiquette" and "political morality". The core of Chinese civilization is not etiquette, customs, art and living habits, but what kind of basic system is used to construct politics. The Heavenly Sons from the northern ethnic groups, whether they sit on black felt or take their places on suburban ceremonies; whether they wear crowns or braids; whether they believe in shamans or Buddhist taoism, as long as they practice Confucian unification instead of dividing the world, as long as they use the county and county civil official system instead of using the tribal theocratic system, as long as they regard the people as one instead of engaging in ethnic differences, they are the sons of China.
Although Gao Huan established the new emperor with humble old etiquette, he continued to "Sinicize" in the official system and law, and the Northern Qi law eventually evolved into the Sui and Tang laws, and the scale of officials selected by examination in Northern Qi far exceeded that of the Southern Dynasty.
The Western Liao Yelü Dashi retreated to Central Asia and Xinjiang, established the Qaraqidan, and called himself "Ger Khan". At that time, central Asia was under the 80-year-old Ekta division system. But Yelü Dashi abolished Ekta and transplanted the system of the Central Plains Dynasty. Centralized power was implemented administratively, the civilian bureaucracy (Shaheina system) was introduced in the territories directly under the direct jurisdiction 81, the military power was transferred to the central government 82, and the Chinese characters were used as the official script83. The tax is levied on each household in only one "dinar," which Barthold believes is China's tithe. Because of the Western Liao, Russia and Central Asia still refer to China as "Khitan" (Китай).
The Yuan Dynasty was a centralized political system, with the central government setting up Zhongshu Province as the prime minister and the local government as Zhongshu Province. Although culturally, although various religions are promoted at the same time, the country is still governed by Confucianism politically. The other three Mongol khanates were all divided into feudal states, and Kublai Khan transformed into the Central Plains Dynasty in 1271 after taking the I Ching "Dazha Qianyuan" and changing the name of the country to "Dayuan". The emperors of the Yuan Dynasty all learned Confucianism and Honoring Kong, and the bureaucratic Han system was established, using Han-style names such as zun numbers, temple numbers, and courtesy names, supplemented by Han-style canons such as capital city, palace que, imperial ceremony, seal, and avoidance.84
Not to mention the political construction of the Qing Dynasty, all theoretical resources and institutional arrangements come from Chinese civilization85.
The customs and rituals of the dynasty established by the steppe peoples do not explain anything. Changing the nature of the country mainly depends on the governance system. Charlemagne accepted the coronation of the Holy Romans, nor did he make the Carolingians "Romans", because the Frankish system of governance was not Roman. On the contrary, the Qing Dynasty shaved its hair and changed its clothes, of course, it was still China, because its governance system was China.
"Huaxia" and "Inner Asia" have always been "you have me" and "I have you". Forward, there is "Inner Asia" among the three generations of Xia Shang. The Shaanxi Shi'an site has unearthed stone carved figures and stone cities with a strong Eurasian grassland style. The tombs of Yin Ruins unearthed a large number of bronzes influenced by the style of the steppe tribes86. The Qin Gong Tomb in Li County, Gansu Province, shows that the Qin ethnic group is mixed with a large number of Qiang and Qiang people. Backwards, the Ming Dynasty, known as the "last Han Dynasty", actually contains a large number of Mongolian relics. The language style of Zhu Yuanzhang's edict is the hard translation of the Yuan Dynasty. The emperors of the Ming Dynasty also had several identities as steppe khans, Tibetan human bodhisattvas and reincarnation saint kings, and is an islamic patron.87 Even the "Ming Dynasty Hanfu" also had YuanFeng88.
In 2015, the tomb of the Western Han Dynasty Hai Xiahou (deposed emperor Liu He) unearthed a large number of gold burials and twisted sheep ornaments influenced by Xiongnu culture. Are the bow-drawn people outside the Great Wall and the crown belt room inside the Great Wall pure strangers, or are they close relatives of shared civilization?
Dividing the world by race, religion, customs, and myths is the habit of Western civilization. Because in their history, the modern civil service system appeared very late, and there is little tradition of political integration of society. In recent years, the West has strengthened "cultural symbols" and "identity politics", which has also brought about the divisive consequences of "tribal politics" to itself. Fukuyama reflected that "democratic societies are being fractured into fragments divided according to increasingly narrow identities, a path that will only lead to the collapse of the state and end in failure." He called for a national identity of a "creed state identity, which is not based on shared personal identities, life experiences, historical ties or religious beliefs, but around core values and beliefs." The purpose of this conception is to encourage citizens to identify with the fundamental ideals of their country and to use public policy to consciously integrate new members"90.
Yixia's distinction is no different from China
The debate between Yixia and Xia, which has been endless for thousands of years, still triggers the discussion of "what is China". Many debaters only argue by taking out the "only words" in the history books, without taking into account the integrity of history.
The original "Yixia Distinction" comes from the Spring and Autumn Ram Biography, "Southern Yi and Northern Di intersect, China is endlessly like a line"91. "Northern Di" refers to the "White Di" that caused the Duke of Qi Huan to honor The King of Qi for the first time, and "Nanyi" refers to the State of Chu. However, in the Warring States, especially in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the former "Hua" and "Yi" have become "Qimin", and the whole world practices the royal law, and there is no difference between ethnic groups.
The peak of the second "Huayi Debate" was the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and to call Yidi to each other was to fight for an orthodoxy. In the Tang Dynasty, the "Huayi Distinction" weakened. Tang Taizong said, "Since ancient times, all of them have been noble in China, and they have been humble and loved as one." Inside and outside the imperial court were all elites of all ethnic groups. The "Anshi Rebellion" that followed was a matter of dominance rather than ethnicity.
The third peak was the Song Dynasty. The economic culture of the Song Dynasty reached its peak, but it was unable to unify. Faced with the military strength of Liaojin and Western Xia92, the Song Dynasty had to self-solidify to distinguish between high and low, Zhenzong self-directed and performed the Heavenly Book Sealing Zen, and the scholar also exalted the "Distinction of Huayi"93. In fact, liao, xia, and jin all absorbed the Han civilization, and the north and south all spoke the same language. In the Yuan Dynasty, the "Huayi Distinction" faded again. The so-called "four-class system" is still controversial to this day.
The fourth peak was the middle of the Ming Dynasty. At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang took the anti-Yuan and Han restoration as a call, and once the state was established, he immediately recognized that the Yuan Dynasty's entry into the Central Plains was the "Mandate of Heaven", preached the unification of the world, "Huayi is boundless, although the surnames are different, the characters are the same", and Kublai Khan was included in the temple of the emperors of the past dynasties and sacrificed with the three emperors and five emperors, and the founding princes of the two Han, Tang, and Song dynasties. It was only after the capture of Emperor Yingzong in the Tumu Fort that the Ming Dynasty's self-esteem was greatly bruised that Kublai Khan was withdrawn from the temple.
The fifth peak is the "Ming and Qing Dynasties". Since Kangxi worshipped Confucius, successive Qing emperors have thoroughly implemented Han civilization. The "Huayi Distinction" has once again dissolved.
Yixia is based on the cultural system. As long as you accept the Chinese Taoist system, the legal system, and the political system, you can get the Mandate of Heaven, because there is no outside the world. The strength or weakness of the "Huayi distinction" depends on the unity and division of the country. In the world of division, all ethnic groups are "calling each other Yidi"; where there is a unified dynasty, the rulers are committed to dissolving the "Huayi distinction".
Rome did the same.
The philosophy at the height of the Roman Empire was "cosmopolitanism". Before the 4th century, Roman historians praised the barbarians, such as Tacitus praised the Germanic people's "excellent customs and habits" such as democracy, martial arts, and simplicity of nature. Many emperors after the middle of the Roman Empire had "barbarian blood", such as Maximinus, Philippe, and Claudius II. Many of the Empire's most famous generals were also born into barbarian tribes, such as Gainas, Saul, Bakurius, Aetius, and Ovida, and even the Roman general Stirico who resisted the Visigothic invasion was a Vandal. After the 4th century, the empire was divided, and the Romans were full of resentment94. In the 6th century, some historians scolded Constantine the Great as the culprit of the decline of the empire, because of the introduction of a large number of barbarians. And the barbarians also began to argue that "heroes come from their own places." For example, after Theodoric was betrayed by Boetheus in his later years, he instructed court historians to write a history of the Goths, emphasizing the glorious history of his family for 17 consecutive generations95.
Within every civilization, there are commonalities and differences. When the community is divided, the political centers, in order to demarcate their borders and consolidate themselves, are bound to exaggerate differences and belittle commonality until they become permanent divisions. Even if there are the same ancestors, languages, memories, beliefs, as long as there is political polycentric competition, this tragedy is bound to occur. Sects are divided, ethnic groups are disintegrating, and so is the case.
Political unity is the basis of the existence of cultural pluralism. The more political unity is consolidated, the more multiculturalism can stretch out its individuality; the more fragile the political unity, the more multiculturalism will fight each other and eventually die. Unity and pluralism are not one or the other, but the same weak and strong. If you do not understand the dialectical relationship between unity and pluralism, you will divide the world and confuse yourself.
Conclusion
Regression of the mother
The concepts of unity and pluralism were entangled in the two Universities of China in the last century.
The first is Gu Jiegang. The new cultural movement has created a group of fierce radicals, and Gu Jiegang is the number one. In 1923, the 30-year-old Suzhou youth lashed out at the Three Emperors and Five Emperors, believing that ancient history was "built" by Confucianism layer by layer.96 He advocated examining everything by empirical methods, and whoever wanted to prove the existence of Xia, Shang, and Zhou must come up with evidence of Xia, Shang, and The Three Dynasties. He used sociological and archaeological methods to contrast between ancient books, "daring to overthrow all the idols in the 'scriptures' and 'biographies'"97. This movement developed to the extreme, that is, "Xia Yu is a worm". Hu Shi praised this, "It is better to doubt the ancient and lose it, and not to trust the ancient and lose it." ”
Using this method, Gu Jiegang proposed to deny that "the nation is out of unity" and "the region has always been unified." He believes that in ancient times, "it was only the recognition that a nation had the ancestor of a nation, and there was no recognized ancestor of many nations", "originally it was its own ancestor, so why call for unification"! 98 As soon as the "Theory of Doubting the Ancients" came out, the ideological circles shook the mountains and disintegrated history, and the "Chinese identity" was disintegrated. But Gu Jiegang didn't think so. In his eyes, only such a new approach can reconstruct the decaying 2,000-year-old genealogy of knowledge. Like the pioneers of the New Culture Movement, he strives to create a new China.
However, the first to question the ancient history of China was not Gu Jiegang, but the Japanese Oriental historians before World War II99. At the beginning of the 20th century, these historians described the rise and fall of East Asian civilizations, the rise and fall of ethnic groups, and the rise and fall of states from the perspective of eastern peoples. Its representative figure, Shiratori Kuji, used empirical historiography to propose that Yao Shunyu did not really exist, but was just an "idol" invented by later Generations of Confucians. Gu Jiegang, who was originally influenced by Qianjia Kao's spirit, deeply obeyed the white bird Kuji and also shouted "Down with the ancient history."
However, while engaging in academic innovation, these so-called masters of Oriental history developed a complete set of theories of "deconstructing China by race", such as the theory of "Eighteen Provinces of Han China", "China North of the Great Wall", "Manchu-Mongolian-Tibetan Return to Non-China", "China Without Borders", "Qing Dynasty Non-State", "Alien Conquest is Happiness", and so on. This has become the predecessor of today's "new Qing history" concept in the United States, and it is also the basis for Lee Teng-hui and other pro-independence factions. The masters of Oriental history also believe that after the Wei and Jin Dynasties and the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the "ancient Han people" had already declined, and the Manchu and Mongolian peoples had a "Yidi disease" with arrogance and self-respect. Only Japan, which combines the brave spirit of the northern peoples with the exquisite culture of the Southern Han peoples, is the "end point of civilization" to save the evils of East Asian civilization. Japanese culture is a subsystem that has grown up under the stimulation of Chinese culture, and has the qualifications to undertake Chinese civilization, and the center of Chinese civilization will be transferred to Japan.
Gu Jiegang woke up. In the face of the flames of war in "9/18", he once devoted himself to Oriental historiography and finally understood the relationship between scholarship and politics.
In 1938, he witnessed Japan continue to provoke the independence of the Thai and Burmese languages in the southwest, and was shaken by The spirit of Fu Si Nian100, and finally rejected his theory of fame. On February 9, 1939, when he was ill, he wrote "The Chinese Nation is One" 101 in front of the table. He opposed the use of "nation" to define the various ethnic groups in the country and suggested that it should be replaced by "cultural groups", since "since ancient times, Chinese have only cultural concepts and no racial concepts". In fact, Gu Jiegang put forward the concept of "nationality" here, that is, "the people who belong to the same government" belong to the same nationality, that is, the Chinese nation.
He took his origin as an example, "My surname is Gu, I am an old ethnic group in Jiangnan, and there is always no one who does not admit that I am a Chinese or a Han Chinese; but my family was still one of the Hundred Yue who cut off tattoos during the Zhou Qin Period, and at that time lived on the seashore in Fujian and Zhejiang, and it was really not Chinese to communicate with China." Ever since our ancestor King Dong'ou sent a message to the Han Dynasty, asking Emperor Wu of Han to move his people between Jianghuai and Jianghuai... We can no longer say that we are a 'Vietnamese nation' and not a member of the Chinese nation."
Gu Jiegang, who had always believed that the "continuation of the three generations" was a post-Confucian fabrication, began to argue about the transformation of the Shang Zhou, "Even Confucius, a descendant of the Shang King, had to say, 'Zhou Jian is in the second generation, depressed in the Wen Zhao, and I am from the Zhou'. He did not want to say, 'You are the Zhou people, we are the Shang people, we should remember the old hatred of the Zhou Gong's eastern crusades'; he loved the Zhou Gong to the extreme, and often dreamed of the Zhou Gong. "Imagine how arrogant this is, where there is the slightest narrow conception of race"102!
After the publication of "The Chinese Nation is One," it sparked a famous discussion in which a younger anthropologist and ethnologist, Fei Xiaotong, was questioned. He was 29 years old at the time, and Gu Jiegang was a fellow of Suzhou, who had just returned from studying in the Uk.
Fei Xiaotong believes that "nation" is a group formed according to differences in culture, language, and physique, and is a scientific concept. It is an objective fact that there are indeed different nationalities in China, and there is no need to deliberately eliminate the boundaries of various ethnic groups in order to seek political unity, and there is no need to worry about the enemy using the concept of "nationality" and shouting "national self-determination" to divide China. He stressed that "people with the same culture, language, and physique do not have to belong to a country" and "no country need to be a cultural and linguistic group"103, because the reality of the Republic of China is that there are multiple political centers, and there are also periods of separation of political powers in Chinese history.
Hearing this, although Gu Jiegang was sick, he was like "a bone in the throat" and got up again to write "Continuing on the Chinese Nation as One", retorting that the "national nature" of the Chinese nation is strong enough and that "differentiation" is an "unnatural situation." As long as the separatist forces are slightly weaker, the people will spontaneously end the situation of division. If the "long separation" had natural stability, China would have been fragmented and not a nation.104 At the end of the article, he even roared angrily: "Wait, when the Japanese army withdraws from China, we will be able to see how the people of the four northeastern provinces and other occupied areas have given us a good example."
For the anger of the seniors, Fei Xiaotong was silent and did not answer again. "Whether the Chinese nation is one or more" has become a public case with no conclusion.
Gu Jiegang died 41 years later (1980) at the age of 87. Eight years later (1988), the 78-year-old Fei Xiaotong delivered a lengthy speech entitled "The Pattern of Pluralism and Integration of the Chinese Nation." He acknowledged the existence of such a free entity as the "Chinese nation". He said, "The Chinese nation, as a conscious national entity, has emerged in the confrontation between China and the Western powers in the past hundred years, but as a free national entity, it has been formed by thousands of years of historical process. Its mainstream is made up of a multitude of scattered and isolated national units, which, through contact, mixing, connection and integration, but also division and demise, form a pluralistic unity of you coming and going, I come and go, I have you, you have me, and each has its own personality"106.
After another 5 years, Fei Xiaotong returned to his hometown in Suzhou to attend Gu Jiegang's memorial meeting, and for the first time responded to the public case more than 60 years ago- "Later, I understood that Mr. Gu was based on patriotic enthusiasm, and in view of the japanese imperialism at that time establishing 'Manchukuo' in northeast China and instigating separatism in Inner Mongolia, so I filled my chest with indignation and vigorously opposed the aggressive act of using 'nationality' to split our country." His political stance I fully espouse"107.
Some critics believe that Fei Xiaotong's theory of "pluralism and unity" is nothing more than a compromise and a bridge between "one" and "multiple" and a "political statement" that bridges the gap. However, Fei Xiaotong believes that the fundamental problem is that it is impossible to describe the "Chinese nation" with the Western concept of nationality. "We should not simply copy the existing concepts of the West to talk about China. Nation is a concept that belongs to the category of history. The essence of the Chinese nation depends on China's long history, and if the Western concept of the nation is rigidly applied, many places cannot justify themselves."
Fei Xiaotong also explained his transformation in his later years, "When I was circling in Qufu Konglin, I suddenly realized that Confucius was not engaged in the order of pluralism and unity. And he succeeded in China, forming a huge Chinese nation. The reason why China did not have the split between the former Czechoslovakia and the former Soviet Union is because Chinese have a Chinese mentality. ”
The entanglement between Gu Jiegang and Fei Xiaotong reflects the common path of modern Chinese intellectuals - both the desire to use Western concepts to transform China's intellectual tradition, but the discovery that Western experience cannot summarize its own civilization; both the desire for Western scholarship independent of politics and the discovery that Western scholarship has never been inseparable from politics. In the end, they all returned to the matrix of Chinese civilization.
The perspective of others
For more than a century, China has lost its political and cultural discourse power, and "historical China" is written by the West and the East. Brothers' perceptions of each other are shaped by foreign academic frameworks.
For example, some Han chauvinists believe that "there is no China after the cliffs" and "no China after the Ming Dynasty"; some narrow nationalist views believe that "Manchuria and Mongolia returned to Tibet and non-China". This is all the poison of the "Oriental History" of that year.
For example, some historians have tried to use "ideology" to benchmark Western history. When the West said that "great unification" was the original sin of despotism, they blamed "despotism" on the Yuan and Qing dynasties. It is said that the Han, Tang, and Song dynasties were originally "enlightened despotism" in which "emperors and scholars ruled the world together", not far from the West, and as a result, they were transformed into "barbaric despotism" by the "master-slave concept" of the nomadic people, the high degree of centralization of power in the Ming Dynasty was a remnant of the military system of the Yuan Dynasty, and China did not produce capitalism because it was cut off by the Qing Dynasty. They come to this conclusion because they have not studied in depth the inner logic of China's failure to give birth to capitalism.
For example, when the West believed that China had not developed a so-called democratic system due to the lack of a "liberal tradition," some historians began to argue that "agrarian civilization" represented despotism and "nomadic civilization" represented freedom. If the Yuan Dynasty had not been overthrown by the Ming Dynasty, China would have had a social formation above commerce and law as early as the 13th century. They did not understand that the so-called "free spirit" belonged only to the Goths and Germans in the West, and never to the Huns, Turks, and Mongols in the East. In Montesquieu's writings, the same conquest, the Goths spread "freedom", while the Tatars (Mongols) spread "despotism" (On the Spirit of the Law)109. In Hegel's writings, the Germans knew all freedom, the Greco-Romans knew part of it, and the Orientals as a whole knew no freedom (Philosophy of History), 110.
These disputes and attacks come from the fact that we always look at ourselves through the eyes of other civilizations, which, while having the benefits of pluralistic thinking, are often subject to the coercion of international politics. This has been true in the past, and it will be true in the future.
Chinese civilization is not without the concept of "race", but there is a stronger "tianxia" spirit that transcends it. Wang Tong, the great hermit of the Sui Dynasty, taught almost the entire general group of the early Tang Dynasty. As a Han Chinese, he said that the orthodoxy of China was not in the Southern Dynasty of the Han People, but in the Xianbei Xiaowen Emperor 111. Because Emperor Xiaowen "dwells in the kingdom of the first kings, receives the way of the first kings, and the people of the sons of the first kings" 112. This is the true spirit of the world.
The same is true of other ethnic groups.
Tibetans and Mongolians believe in Buddhism, and both Tibetan and Chinese traditions have the doctrine of "eliminating discriminating minds".113 In the Chinese Muslim tradition of "Yiru Huitong", there is also "the way of the saints in the western region is the same as the way of the Chinese saints." Its founding of the religion is based on righteousness, knowing the principle of the incarnation of heaven and earth, the theory of death and life, the principle of constant ethics, eating and living, not having the tao, and not fearing the heavens" 114 of the teachings. This spirit of breaking down ethnic barriers is the background of Chinese civilization. A history of the Chinese nation is a history in which the "spirit of the world" transcends the "self-limitation of national nature."
The integration of the Chinese nation is also full of deep emotions. Written in the Mongolian "Golden History" written in the late Ming Dynasty, it is said that the Yongle Emperor was the widow of the Yuan Shun Emperor, and through the Battle of Jingnan, the Ming Emperor secretly returned to the Yuan Dynasty, until the Manchus entered the Pass, ending the "Mandate of Yuan"; the "Han-Tibetan History Collection" written in the early Ming Dynasty said that the Yuan Dynasty was "the Mongols who took charge of the han Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty"115, the late Song Emperor (barbarian Hezun) did not throw himself into the sea on the cliffs, but went to Tibet to study Buddhism, became a senior monk of the Sathya sect, and finally reincarnated as a Han monk named Zhu Yuanzhang, seized the Mongol throne. He also gave birth to a son who looked like a Mongol named Zhu Di. The use of "reincarnation" and "cause and effect" to arrange the three dynasties of the Song Dynasty into "mutual past and future lives" is not a canonical history, but a legend of religious wild history, a simple consensus of people at that time on the greater China, and a different way for different ethnic groups to express the feelings of "community of destiny". These emotions are difficult for people who describe China based on foreign theories alone to understand.
Deep emotions can produce deep understanding, and deep understanding can complete the construction of reality. In the end, the story of the Chinese nation must be written by ourselves.
Own story
The story of the 300-year-old dynasty of China's Eastern Jin Dynasty, The Southern and Northern Dynasties, there are too many regimes, characters, and events, and it is chaotic and annoying at first glance, which is the most difficult history to write clearly. The code for the reshaping of the Chinese nation and the transformation and upgrading of Chinese civilization is precisely hidden in these 300 years. If you don't have the patience to go inside, look around, and stand, it will be difficult to find your source.
Take the "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" as an example. This book has been said to be rotten for hundreds of years, and countless versions are countless ruins. Young people who do not love history think that Chinese history is the "Three Kingdoms" in this part. In fact, the "Three Kingdoms" is only 60 years, and it is the most backward period in China's history. Before the introduction of corn potatoes in the late Ming Dynasty, Chinese had always been between 20 million and 60 million, but the population of the Three Kingdoms had dropped to 10 million, and the battles of hundreds of thousands of troops in the book were all speeches. In addition to the martial arts of Cao's father and son, the Three Kingdoms can be compared with the magnificent epic poems of the next 300 years. In those 300 years, there have been several large-scale "Three Kingdoms" standing. The complexity of the political situation, the wisdom and courage of the generals and generals, the grand scale of the soldiers, and the fierce historical influence are even more incomparable to the "Romance of the Three Kingdoms."
The first was that the Eastern Jin Dynasty was based in Jiangnan and established the Three Kingdoms of Zhao with the Xiongnu Liu Clan Han Zhao and the Xiongnu Shi Clan; the second was the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Xianbei Murong Qianyan and the Former Qin Three Kingdoms of the Qiang Dynasty; the third was the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Qiang people Yao's Later Qin and the Xianbei Murong Houyan Three Kingdoms; the fourth was Liu Song's stronghold of Jiangnan, and the Xiongnu Helian Daxia and the Xianbei Tuoba Northern Wei Three Kingdoms; fifth, Qi Liang was based on Jiangnan, and the Three Kingdoms of Eastern Wei and Western Wei; sixth, the Chen Dynasty was based on Jiangnan, and the Northern Qi and Yuwen Clan were established in the Northern Three Kingdoms of Gao's Northern Qi and Yuwen's Northern Wei. There are countless heroic stories that have changed history. There are Liu Kun and Zu Ti, who heard chickens dancing and attacking in the middle stream; there was the "Yecheng Confrontation" between Shi Le and Zhang Bin, a Han military master; there were several major battles between Former Yan, Former Qin, and the Northern Expedition of the Eastern Jin Dynasty; there were several great battles between Wang Meng as "Guan Zhong of Jian Jian", Murong Ke as "Huo Guang of Former Yan", and Liu Yu as "Cao Cao of Sima Dezong"; there was the momentum of Jian Jian leading a million troops to cross the river (the only example of crossing the river on a million scale in ancient China) and the calmness before being killed There is a tragic scene of dozens of guards peeing on Cui Hao when he was wrongfully killed for such a feat.117 The most dramatic gathering was when 26-year-old Yuwen Tai disguised himself as an envoy and peeked into the scene of Gao Huan, who was at the peak of the 37-year-old. At this time, Gao Huan's hegemony had become more than half, and Yuwen Tai secretly thought to himself, if Gao Huan was a true hero, he would surrender, and if he was inseparable from me, he would fight to the end. In the courtroom, on the one hand, Yuwen Tai was determined not to surrender and quickly returned to the west after half a day, and on the other hand, Gao Huan saw that this envoy had "different eyes" and felt something in his heart, and the soldiers could not catch up. This scene determines history 118. Gao Huan became the ancestor of Northern Qi, Yuwen Tai became the ancestor of Northern Zhou, and the two sides fought 5 major wars in 10 years, and a large number of famous generals emerged, such as Gao Ao Cao, Dou Tai, Wang Sizheng, Wei Xiaokuan, and so on. Among the Guanlong generals who followed Yuwen Tai, Yang Zhong's son Yang Jian became the founding emperor of the Sui Dynasty, Li Hu's grandson Li Yuan became the founding emperor of the Tang Dynasty, Dugu Xin's eldest daughter was the northern Zhou Ming Emperor,the seventh daughter was the sui emperor and Yang Guang's mother, and the fourth daughter was the grandmother of Li Yuan's mother, Li Shimin. The general on Gao Huan's side had withered away before his death, and after his death, hou Jing, a crippled man who only obeyed him but did not obey his son, only took 8,000 remnants of soldiers to the south, and even starved the young and elderly Liang Wu Emperor wu of the Buddha alive and overthrew the Liang Dynasty.
In addition to the story of "Emperor And General", there is also the story of "Literati inker". The Southern Dynasty's "Midnight Song", the Northern Dynasty's "Mulan Ci", Bao Zhao's Biansai poem, Tao Yuanming's pastoral poem, and Xie Lingyun's landscape poems together gave birth to Tang poetry. Jiang Yan's hated Farewell Erfu was repeatedly copied by Li Bai, and Yu Xin's "Southern Fu of the Sorrowful River" was recited by Du Fu for life. Wang Guowei regarded the "Six Dynasties of Biao language" as a "generation of literature" between Chu Ci Han Fu and Tang poetry and Song Ci. 119 Not to mention Xiao Tong's Selected Works of Zhaoming, which is the earliest collection of poetry in China, Liu Xun's Wenxin Carved Dragon is a collection of Chinese literary theories, and Zhong Rong's Poetry is the first poetic monograph in China.
There is also the story of the sinification of Buddhism in the midst of frequent wars. At the time of the Great Rebellion of the Five Hu Dynasties, the Western Hu monk Tu Cheng was worshipped as a national teacher by Shi Le and Shi Hu, and he used the magic of strange abilities and the theory of cause and effect to constantly persuade ershi to follow the "king" to practice "dehua"120. After the fall of Later Zhao, Dao'an, a disciple of Fo Tucheng, went all the way south to Xiangyang and for the first time proposed that "if you do not follow the lord of the country, it is difficult to establish the law", breaking the dogfa of "Shamen does not respect the king".121 In order to meet Dao'an, Daojian sent an army to capture Xiangyang, and after Dao'an arrived in Chang'an, he recommended to Jian Jian the Guizi senior monk Kumarosh, whom he had never met. Jian Jian laid the western region for Kumarosh, but the army had just taken him halfway, Former Qin was destroyed, and 16 years later, when Later Qin welcomed him to Chang'an as a national division, Dao'an, who recommended him, had long since passed away. Kumarosh did not forget his original intention of going east, translating hundreds of volumes, laying the foundation for the convergence of Mahayana Madhyamaka Buddhism with classical Chinese philosophy. The northern and southern regimes were divided across the river, but the exchange of Buddhism between the north and the south was never interrupted, and Dao'an's eldest disciple Hui Yuan went south to Lushan Donglin Temple to teach the Dharma, and Hui Yuan's disciple Daosheng went north to Chang'an to study at Kumarosh. At the same time, several famous monks in Jiankang were also active. Among them, Faxian took the scriptures from the Northern Dynasty Chang'an to India, and then returned to the Southern Dynasty Jiankang through the Nanyang Sea Route, and in the 30 years of the 30 kingdoms, a Travelogue of the Buddha Kingdom became the historical evidence of the South Asian countries. Not only the north and the south, since Zhijian opened up the western region, Chinese and Indian monks have come and gone, and Dharma has also brought Zen Buddhism to China. The various schools of Buddhism were mainly founded in these 300 years, and after many twists and turns, they initially straightened out the relationship between Buddhism and the regime, and since then established the "political bishop"; they have initially straightened out the relationship between Buddhism and their parents, and since then there has been no contradiction between cause and effect and filial piety; they have initially straightened out the relationship between Buddhism and Chinese philosophy, which has opened the way for the future development of Zen and science.
There are many stories in the past 300 years, the most important story is the story of the Hu Han family of the Chinese nation. Who are we? Are han Chinese or Mongolians, Are Tibetans Uighurs or Manchus? After watching these 300 years, I have understood what is the Chinese nation, what is Chinese civilization, and what is my own identity and spiritual world. I hope that Chinese young people will look more, I hope that cultural people will see more, and I hope that Westerners will see more. The story of 300 years is sometimes thrilling and hairy, and sometimes the contemplation is more and more desolate.
There is a song called "The Song of The Edict". Everyone has heard it. Who knew that it was born in the battlefield of a sea of swords and blood? Gao Huan fought with Yuwen Tai for 10 years, losing more than winning, and the last battle was under the Yubi City in Hedong. In the late autumn of 546, the Yellow River whimpered and the frost and wind killed. Gao Huan's 200,000 troops attacked for 50 days in a row, and the dead and wounded pillows still did not work. Gao Huan, who had been invincible all his life, saw that in this life he could no longer destroy Yuwen Tai and could no longer unify the world, and could only order the withdrawal of his troops. In a hurry, the bodies of 70,000 fallen soldiers were too late to be buried, so they had to be gathered in a large pit. After returning to Jinyang, he forced his sick body to stabilize the hearts of the army, and ordered the general Huo Lujin to lead the song "Shule River, Under the Yin Mountain." The sky is like a vault, and the cage covers the four fields. The sky is clear, the wild is vast, and the wind blows grass low to see cattle and sheep." The lyrics of the Xianbei language are endless, and the whole group of handsome ministers around them will sing together. Thinking of the hundreds of thousands of soldiers who died in battle in the past 10 years, looking at his white hair and rivers, Gao Huan burst into tears. The song was passed down. 122 At the same time, Yuwen Tai in the west restored the Huangzhong Dalu and Yale Zhengyin contained in the Zhou Li, and also set up the Six Officials and the Six Learnings according to the Zhou Li. 30 years later, Northern Zhou destroyed Northern Qi and launched the Sui and Tang Dynasties.
Gao Huan is a humble Han Chinese, And Yuwen Tai is a Sinicized Xiongnu, they are all typical Chinese in the 300-year history of the integration of the Chinese nation, and they do not fight for the interests of the ethnic group but to unify the world. If Chinese young people do not understand and persevere in these things, if Western young people do not understand and understand, Chinese and Western civilization will always be separated by a layer of paper and cannot be explained thoroughly. Like that song, who cares about its origins?
Endnotes
1. The evolution of the Northern Xiongnu after their westward migration is controversial. Many scholars believe that the Northern Xiongnu were directly related to the later Huns. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, historian Hong Jun pointed out in the "Supplement to the Translation of the History of the Yuan" that the image of the "Huns" mentioned in western ancient texts is very similar to the image of the Xiongnu. In the 18th century, the French scholar de Zanni found what the Hungarians and huns had in common, and in the General History of the Huns, he proposed that the ancestors of the Hungarians were the Northern Huns who came from afar. Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire adopts this view, and the famous German sinologist Schade also agrees with this view in the "Study of the Huns". Bernstein's "Cankule Tomb" and Eshang Bov's "Hunnic Homogeneity Theory" excavated Han/Hun burial products from the DNA analysis of tombs and the Area of Hun activity, respectively, giving strong support to the homogeneous theory. See also: [Japanese] Uchida Yinfeng et al., A Short History of the Study of the Homogeneity theory of the Huns and Xiongnu, Yunnan People's Publishing House, 2003.
2. In the second year of Zhang He, "The Northern Raiders were in chaos, and the locusts were starved, and those who descended came back and forth", Nandan Yu said: "The new surrender of the New Void Canal and other courtiers said to themselves: In the middle of March last year, Beidan yu created the Southern Soldiers, and feared Ding Ling, Xianbei, and fled away, yi'an Hou Hexi; The ministers and the kings of the Bone Capital and the New Descending Canal Commandery discussed the strategy of the miscellaneous strategies: it is advisable to divide the dispute with the northern prisoners, send troops to fight, break the north into the south, and become a country, so that the Han parents have no northern thoughts. See also: Fan Ye, Li Xian et al., The Book of the Later Han Dynasty, Biography of the Southern Xiongnu, Zhonghua Bookstore, 1965 edition, p. 2952.
3. "Xian and Bing each rode four thousand horses, and the Southern Xiongnu Zuogu Li Wang Shizi Wan rode out of the Shuo Fang Ji Lu Sai; NanDan Yu Tun Tu He, riding more than 10,000 horses out of the Manyi Valley; the Liao general Deng Hong and Yuanbian Yi riding from Qiang Hu eight thousand horses, and the Zuo Xian king An Guo Wan rode out of The Yang Fortress." All will be zhuo evil mountain. See: Fan Ye, Li Xian et al., Later Han Shu Dou Xian Biography, Zhonghua Bookstore, 1965 edition.
4. "The Tang dynasty in the south is our enemy, and the enemy in the north is baz khan and the uighurs of the nine surnames; the tatars, the bones of the bones, the tatars of the thirty surnames, the khitans, and the tatabi, all of which are our enemies." They are so tempted. The fool was moved by this, so he moved south to get close to it, and among the people who fell to the other side, how can they be counted. See: Han Rulin, Translation of the Turkic Que Special Service Tablet, Publishing Class, General Office of the Beiping National Research Institute, Lead Print, 1935 edition.
5. See: Fei Xiaotong, "The Pattern of Pluralism and Integration of the Chinese Nation", Journal of Peking University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), No. 4, 1989.
6. See: The Book of Jin, The Biography of the Four Yi Columns, Zhonghua Bookstore, 1984 edition, p. 2548.
7. In 1973, a bronze seal, square seat and camel button were excavated in tomb No. 1 of the Han Tomb Group in Shangsunjiazhai Village, Houzihe Township, Datong County, Qinghai Province. The inscription "Han Xiongnu Guiyi Pro-Han Chang" is an official seal given by the central government of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the leaders of the Xiongnu ethnic group, of which "Guiyi" is a title given by the Han government to the leaders of the surrounding ethnic groups under its jurisdiction.
8. See: Zhu Dawei, "Examination of the Total Population of The Ethnic Minorities of the Sixteen Kingdoms of the Northern Dynasties into the Han Nationality", Zhu Dawei Says the Southern and Northern Dynasties of the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Shanghai Science and Technology Literature Publishing House, 2009 edition.
9. See: Helen McGill Hughes, ed., Racial and Ethnic Relation, Boston, Holbrook Publishing Company, 1970, pp. 117-119.
10. According to Jiang Tong's "Theory of Migration", the proportion of Hu and Han people in Guanzhong is one to one, and the proportion of Hu people in northeast China is higher.
11. "The shudder is a disaster." Seek your own goodness, and fear no external troubles. See also: The Book of Jin and the Records of Jian Jian.
12. "Wei Chu did not establish three chieftains, so the people were many shades, and those who were dependents had no official service, and the powerful levies were more than the public endowments." See also: Wei Shu Food Goods Chronicle.
13. See: Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 138.
14. "He who takes the villagers and strengthens them." See also: Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 138.
15. See: Qian Mu, Outline of National History, The Commercial Press, 1996 edition, p. 336.
16. See also: General Preface to the Book of Wei and Topographical Chronicles.
17. Tang Changru: Three Treatises on the History of the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui and Tang Dynasties, Wuhan University Press, 1992 edition, p. 88.
18. See: Chen Yinke, Jin Mingguan Series II, Sanlian Bookstore, 2001 edition, p. 344.
19. From the 8th to the 9th century, the kingdoms of Europe produced written scripts in their respective dialects. Until the end of the Middle Ages, however, Latin remained the official, recorded, and ecclesiastical language, while written Germanic was only an aid. See also: Peter Burke, translated by Xiaoxiang Li, Lu Li, and Yu Yang, Cultural History of Language: Languages and Communities in Early Modern Europe, Peking University Press, 2007, p. 107.
20. The discovery of the original manuscript of the Justinian Doctrine in northern Italy in 1135 AD gave rise to the "Roman Revival Movement".
21. Machiavelli's "Ragione di Stato" doctrine. See also: [Italy] Machiavelli, Translated by Pan Handian: On monarchs, The Commercial Press, 1985 edition, p. 18.
22. More than 40 per cent of the Eastern Roman army (20-25 per cent of the total number of Eastern and Western Roman troops) had been devoted to the defense of Persia, while the majority of the remaining Roman troops were garrisons, dealing mainly with contingencies that posed a low threat to border security.
23. The Visigoths occupied southern France and Spain (419), and the Ostrogoths (493) occupied Italy.
24. See: Peter Heather, translated by Xiang Jun, The Fall of the Roman Empire, CITIC Press, 2016 edition, p. 532.
According to Tim O'Neill, the Visigoths of the Alaric period may have contained 20,000 warriors and a total population of no more than 200,000, the Vandal subjects under Gesarik who sacked Rome were also approximate, and the Franks, Arans, and Burgundians may not exceed 100,000, for a total of 750,000 to 1 million.
26. In the early days of the barbarian statehood, a dualistic system was retained to a certain extent, that is, a mixture of the roman remnants of the system and the traditional habits of the barbarians. Among them, the Ostrogothic was the most romanized, followed by the Visigothic. There was a process of romanization, and visigothic dualism did not disappear until the mid-7th century. See also: Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History, translated by Xiang Jun, CITIC Publishing Group, 2016 edition, p. 503.
27. See: Perry Anderson, translated by Guo Fang and Liu Jian, The Transition from Antiquity to Feudalism, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2016 edition, p. 81.
28. "He often went to the Academy to receive instruction from the Master, but did not attach importance to Greek art, and always stayed in the introductory courses of science, showing how ignorant he was, so much so that he used a vulgar sign to represent the signature, which made people think that he was the illiterate king of Italy." See also: Edward Gibbon, translated by Xi Daiyue, Full Translation of the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Zhejiang University Press, 2018 edition.
29. See: Edward Gibbon, Huang Yisi et al., History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, The Commercial Press, 1996 edition, p. 165.
30. See: Edward Gibbon, Translated by Huang Yisi et al., History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, The Commercial Press, 1996 edition, p. 158.
31. Scholars have expressed different views on the death of Boethius, arguing that the death of Boethius was not due to a conflict between the Ostrogothic rulers and the Roman senators and nobles, or from a religious conflict between Christian orthodoxy and the heretics of Arianus. See also: Conquet: Martyrs of the Roman Empire? ——An Analysis of the Death of Boethius," World History, No. 1, 2017.
32. See: Edward Gibbon, Translated by Huang Yisi et al., History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, The Commercial Press, 1996 edition, p. 166.
33. As a result, his disposition changed dramatically. He, who had always been a believer, ordered that all the weapons of the inhabitants of Rome be stripped away and that only a small knife for the family be left; that he, who had always been bright and upright, instructed his informants to carry Boetheus when exposing the Roman senators; and he, who had always been religiously tolerant, was ready to ban Christian activities.
34. The Byzantine historian Prokobi wrote, "The Roman populace was completely unaccustomed to the suffering of war and siege. Thus, when they began to feel distressed by the inability to bathe and the lack of food, they found that they themselves had to give up sleep in order to defend the city walls... They began to feel dissatisfied and angry,...... So they themselves gathered in groups and openly cursed Belisarius. See: Prokopius, translated by Wang Yizhu and Cui Miaoyin, History of the Prokopius War, The Commercial Press, 2010 edition, p. 486.
35. See: Prokopius, translated by Wang Yizhu and Cui Miaoyin, History of the Prokopius War, The Commercial Press, 2010 edition, p. 500.
36. See: Helmut Hemitz, translated by Liu Yin, History and Historical Writing Between the Roman Empire and the Carolingian Empire, in Wang Qingjia and Li Longguo, eds., Fracture and Transformation: Eurasian History and Historiography After the Empire, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2017 edition, p. 276.
37. "The Emperor's notorious tax collectors made a fortune during his term of office ... There is no limit to the scope of what he can enlist, other than the affordability of the people. Even the army's salary, he will steal. See also: Thompson, translated by Geng Tanru, Economic and Social History of the Middle Ages, The Commercial Press, 1961 edition, p. 185.
38. "Chang'an is within easy reach and does not cross the bahe river, and the people have not seen the righteousness of the people." See also: The Book of Jin and the Biography of Wang Meng.
39. "The people of Zhongzhou shall return the sangzi." Then he returned to Emperor Daizong, completed the Sealing Zen, raised the white cloud in the middle altar, and received long live in the middle of the temple, and Er was in the end of the ancient world, and the book deed was not there. See also: The Book of Jin and the Records of Jian Jian.
40. See also: Records of the Jin Dynasty.
41. See also: Records of the Book of Jin.
42. "Sweeping The Ten Thousand, Pingqinlong, Zhaoliaohai, and the Source of the Danghe River." See also: Book of Wei and Shizu Jixia.
43. "He who has been humiliated by himself has not been as great as he has been." See also: Biography of Wei Shu Cui Hao.
44. See: Montesquieu, translated by Zhang Yan, On the Spirit of the Law, The Commercial Press, 1963 edition, p. 243.
45. See: Kang Kai, "A Study of the Relationship between the "Barbarians" and the Roman Empire", Historical Research, No. 4, 2014.
46. In the case of a wreck, the trial of water and fire is decided - let the suspect hold a red-hot soldering iron, and the wounded are guilty and safe is not guilty; throw the suspect into the pond, float up is guilty, and sink is not guilty.
47. See: Montesquieu, translated by Zhang Yanshen, On the Spirit of the Law, The Commercial Press, 1963 edition, p. 252.
48. If the Franks defeated the Visigoths and occupied the Pyrenees, they took all the land into royal territory and gave it to Frankish officials and Gothic nobles as estates and autonomous territories. Another example is Charlemagne's large amount of land in the conquered Saxony, Rumba Italy, and Spain to the monks as ecclesiastical fiefdom.
49. See: Mark Bloch, translated by Zhang Xushan, Feudal Society, The Commercial Press, 2004 edition, p. 153.
50. See: Thompson, translated by Geng Tanru, Economic and Social History of the Middle Ages, The Commercial Press, 1961 edition, p. 350.
51. In 445, the Roman Emperor Valentin III granted Leo, then Bishop of Rome, an edict elevating the Church of Rome to the highest status of the Church in the West, declaring that the laws enacted by the Bishop of Rome should be enforced by all Christian churches, and that the Bishop of Rome summoned bishops of other dioceses, and that the bishops of all regions should be recruited and could not resist, and that violators would be escorted to Rome by coercive means by the governor of the region. Leo I has since been known as pope.
52. See: Thompson, translated by Geng Tanru, Economic and Social History of the Middle Ages, The Commercial Press, 1961 edition, p. 297.
53. See: Montesquieu, translated by Zhang Yanshen, On the Spirit of the Law, The Commercial Press, 1963 edition, p. 241.
54. Of the 263 officials of the Xiongnu Han Zhao regime, 114 were Xiongnu (including the imperial family), 131 Were Han Chinese, and 18 were from other ethnic groups. There are 281 candidates for the Later Yan official examination. There were 175 central officials, 45 Murong clan, 19 other Xianbei people, 18 other minority groups, 56 Han chinese, and 37 human beings who were inaccurate; 110 military officials, 30 Murong clans, 15 other Xianbei people, 15 other ethnic groups, 20 Han people, and another 30 ethnic groups were inaccurate; 93 local officials (34 people of the thorn history level), 22 murong clans (18 people of the thorn history level), 8 other Xianbei people, 4 people of other ethnic groups, 43 Han people, and 16 other ethnic groups were inaccurate. Later Qin counted 32 officials of 30 kinds of central centers, 6 imperial families, 19 Han chinese, 3 Qiang people, 3 Huan people, and 1 Hugh official. According to statistics, among the 66 officials, there were 27 Tiefu, 26 Han, 4 Xianbei, 4 Xiongnu, 2 Qiang, 2 Tuguhun and 1 Tu. See also: Zhou Weizhou, History of the Han And Zhao Kingdoms, Social Sciences Academic Press, 2019 edition, p. 203.
55. See: The Book of the Buddha, vol. XXXVIII.
56. See: Einhard, translated by Qi Guogan: The Biography of Charlemagne, The Commercial Press, 1979 edition, p. 30.
57. Leotopran shot back that the word "Romans" was an insult to them. As descendants of Romulus, they were descendants of brother-killers, the product of adultery. They gathered in Rome the unable to repay debts, escaped slaves, murderers, and those who committed capital crimes. See also: Reimitz, History, Frankish Identity, pp. 199—212.
58. "A race is a group of people who share a single origin and are distinguished by their own clusters from another people (natio), such as 'Greek race' or 'race of Asia Minor'... The word 'race' thus derives from the intergenerational origin of the family, i.e. from the name 'gignendo', just as the word 'nation' derives from 'nascendo'". See also: Wang Qingjia and Li Longguo, Fracture and Transformation: Eurasian History and Historiography after the Empire, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2017 edition, p. 290.
59. "Sejong himself ke Gaoping, constantly trained soldiers to talk about martial arts, thought about the day, and read his strategies, and gladly listened to them, and the meaning of Pingnan was strong." See also: "The History of the Old Five Dynasties, Sejong Ki II".
60. Liu Yuan was the "nephew of the Han clan"—because of the Han Xiongnu and his relatives (Liu Yao renamed "from the Xia Hou" – the "Records of history say that the Xiongnu were after the Xia"), the Murong clan was "the Former Gaoxin clan swam on the seashore, leaving the young son to be disgusted with Junbeiyi", the Yu clan was "the Miao descendant of Youhu, who was born as the chief of Xirong", the Yao clan was "Yu Feng Shun's young son in Xirong, and the world was a Qiang chieftain", the Tuoba clan was "Changyi Shaozi, who was enfeoffed with northern soil", and the Yuwen clan was "Emperor Yan was destroyed by the Yellow Emperor, and his descendants lived in Shuoye". See the related "Records of the Book of Jin" and the "History of the North" "Benji".
61. See: Motoyuki Mura, Studies in Chinese Economic History, Society for the Study of Oriental History, 1968 edition, pp. 96-99.
62. Liu Han of the Xiongnu migrated 630,000 Han, Yu, and Qiang households to the capital (Pingyang, Chang'an); after the Xiongnu, Zhao migrated millions of Han, Wuhuan, Xianbei, Ba, Qi, Qiang, and other populations and placed them in various political and military towns; Xianbei Qianyan moved The Duan, Goguryeo, Yuwenbu, Fuyu, and Qiang people multiplied to tens of millions. Before the Qin, the Xianbei, Wuhuan, Dingzhi and other ethnic groups in the distance moved to Guanzhong, and 150,000 households of the Guanzhong ethnic group moved to the "scattered Fang Town" in Guandong; after the Qiang, Qin moved the displaced people from all over the country and the population of the border areas such as Yong and Liang to Guanzhong, reaching more than one million. For details, see the relevant "records" of the Book of Jin.
63. "Shun was born in Zhufeng, moved to Negative Xia, died in Mingtiao, and the people of Dongyi were also born; King Wen was born in Qi Zhou, died in Bi Yin, and the people of Xiyi were also born." The earth is also more than a thousand miles away, and the world is also more than a thousand years old, and it is necessary to act in accordance with China. First holy and then holy, its one also. See also: Mencius Leaving Lou Xia.
64. Shi Le emulated Liu Bang in every way in his words and deeds. Jian Jian's example is to transcend the "Han Zhi Er Wu". Gu Chengyi encouraged Yao Cang to revolt with the phrase "Han and Wei Zhixingye" (Records of The Book of Jin and Yao Cang). Even Yuwen Yu, the Emperor of Zhou Ming, who was suppressed by the powerful minister Yuwen Hu, also had to use Liu Bang's "great wind song" Ming Zhi: "It is still like passing through white water, more like entering Xinfeng" and "Raising a glass to prolong the old, now smelling the song of the wind".
65. Shi Le was shocked to hear people read history, and was shocked to hear that Li Shiqi advised Liu Bang to divide the Six Kingdoms, and was relieved to hear Zhang Liang stop him; Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei xiong declared that he would achieve "the righteousness of "Spring and Autumn" and the beauty of great unification" ("Wei Shu Taizu Ji"), Emperor Jie Min also said that "Shame is the head of all nations" and "the book track is one Hua Rong"; Helian Bobo also had no "reproach" for "the four seas are not the same, and the legacy is still blazing", and established the capital "Unification of Ten Thousand Cities" with the meaning of "unifying the world and kings and kings".
66. See: Luoyang Jialan Ji, vol. 2.
67. For example, Emperor Xiaowen absorbed the official system of the Southern Dynasty and separated the Nine Pins of official ranks from top to bottom 30 levels; Northern Dynasty calligraphy had both the Wei monument of "xiongqiang and hun mu" and the absorption of the "two kings" to give rise to the beauty of rigidity and softness.
68. The study of "righteousness" in the Northern Dynasty combined chapters and sentences (north) and righteousness (south), such as Liu Xianzhi's "Three Rites of Righteousness" and Xu Zunming's "Spring and Autumn Righteous Chapter".
69. See: Luoyang Jialan Ji, vol. 2.
70. Using the Tang dynasty as a carrier, these arts from North Asia and the Western Regions spread throughout East Asia. Northern Qi's "Lanling King's Entry Song", the Eastern Crossing to Japan became Gagaku, which has been passed down to become a living fossil; the concave and convex painting method popular in India and the Western Regions was absorbed by Wu Daozi and other painters in the Tang Dynasty, and spread to Goryeo and Japan, and the murals of the old Golden Hall at Horyuji Temple in Nara are still visible today. See also: Wang Yong, ed., History of Sino-Foreign Art Exchanges, China Youth Publishing House, 2013 edition, p. 60.
71. See: Montesquieu, translated by Zhang Yan, On the Spirit of the Law, The Commercial Press, 1963 edition, p. 241.
72. See: François Guizot, translated by Zhang Qingjin, The Historical Origins of Representative Government in Europe, Fudan University Press, 2008, p. 240.
73.Tocqueville noted that the rule of law, and in particular popular sentiment, can keep a democratic State free. The rule of law and popular sentiments of British Americans are the special reasons and decisive factors that make them strong. The most important sentiment of the Americans is township autonomy. "The township system not only restricts the despotism of the majority, but also enables the people to develop the habit of loving freedom and mastering the art of exercising freedom." See also: Tocqueville, translated by Dong Guoliang, On Democracy in The United States, The Commercial Press, 2004, pp. 356, 332.
74. See: Qian Mu, Law on The Study of Chinese History, Kyushu Publishing House, 2012 edition, p. 113.
75. During the Han Dynasty, although the local administrative level was only two levels of counties and counties, the grass-roots political system below the county level was very complete. Both the county taishou and the county order were dispatched by the central government. The county's jurisdiction is divided into different townships and districts, which are ruled by the "three elders", but they are only responsible for indoctrination and not social management, and the specific work is completed by Shifu, Youzhi, and Youyi. He was responsible for collecting taxes, organizing servitude, and justice, and Youfu was the de facto chief of the police station. In the countryside, pavilions are set up, managed by the chief of the pavilions, to maintain law and order, and to manage the functions of the post and police. Under the pavilion, it is managed by Risho. See also: Fenner, translated by Ma Bailiang and Wang Zhen, History of Domination (Volume I): Ancient Kingship and Empire, East China Normal University Press, 2010 edition, p. 332.
76. See: Fenner, translated by Ma Bailiang and Wang Zhen, History of Domination (Volume I): Ancient Kings and Empires, East China Normal University Press, 2010 edition, pp. 71-72.
77. See: Fenner, translated by Ma Bailiang and Wang Zhen, History of Domination (Volume I): Ancient Kingship and Empire, East China Normal University Press, 2010 edition, p. 348.
78. See: Fenner, translated by Ma Bailiang and Wang Zhen, History of Domination (Volume I): Ancient Kings and Empires, East China Normal University Press, 2010 edition, p. 350.
79. For example, England and France, facilitated by the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453 AD), simultaneously produced conventional armies subordinate to the king and the ability to directly tax the people, but under the repression of the multiple forces of the nobility, the Holy See, and the urban middle class, the power of the European state was never able to develop in the Chinese way. See also: Zhao Dingxin, "The Historical Roots of China's Great Unification", Culture, No. 6, 2009.
80. See: Barthold, translated by Zhang Li, History of Central Asia: Volume I, Lanzhou University Press, 2013, p. 138.
81. In the territories under its direct jurisdiction, the Western Liao capital stationed Shaheina, a symbol of khan power. This is the social management system that maintains local stability. Shaheina was both a magistrate and a governing body, with a military force of a certain size, responsible for handling local affairs and collecting taxes. The establishment of the official system is clearly recorded in the "History of Liao: The Beginning and End of the Western Liao", and after the Eighteen Departments of the Seven Prefectures of the Northern Court Congress, Yelü Dashi established his own bureaucratic system. Judging from the titles of his ministers, such as "Six Chambers Division", "Solicitation Envoy", and "Privy Envoy", the official system of the Western Liao is the inheritance of the official system in the north and south of the Liao, and is the continuation of the centralized power and the system of vassalage in the Western Liao.
82. See: Barthold, translated by Zhang Li, History of Central Asia: Volume I, Lanzhou University Press, 2013, p. 49.
83. In recent years, Kyrgyzstan has unearthed four Copper Coins of the Western Liao Dynasty, shaped like Tang Coins, printed with the Chinese characters of "Xuxing Yuanbao".
84. See: Zhang Fan, "On the Political Characteristics of the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty's "Family World"", Peking University Historiography, No. 1, 2001, pp. 50-75.
85. Proclaiming the rule of the three generations, actively studying confucian classics and mastering the right to interpret the scriptures in Qufu, reconstructing the yixia dialectics, emphasizing that the virtuous are the kings of the world, distinguishing between the inside and outside with "etiquette" rather than "race"; repeatedly touring the south (Kangxi and Qianlong) and going to the Ming Tombs to pay homage to Ming Taizu (Kangxi) with three kneeling and nine prostrations, appeasing and enveloping the jiangnan scholars; advocating filial piety at the upper levels, and re-institutionalizing the organization of township covenants and clans at the grassroots level. See also: Yang Nianqun, Where is "Jiangnan", Sanlian Bookstore, 2010 edition.
86. Typical northern steppe bronzes include ring-headed knives, beast-headed knives, bell-headed swords, bell-headed swords, chalk-drawn axes, bow-shaped carriage and horse-drawn ware, and so on. See also: He Yuling, "A Study on the "Foreign Cultural Factors" of Yin Ruins", Central Plains Cultural Relics, No. 2, 2020.
87. Zhong Yan, "A Brief Analysis of the Inner Asian Nature of the Ming Empire: Centered on the Analogy with the Qing Dynasty", Trends in Chinese Historical Research, No. 5, 2016.
88. Luo Wei, "A Preliminary Study on the Remains of Mongolian Yuan Costumes in the Ming Dynasty", Journal of Capital Normal University (Social Science Edition), No. 2, 2010.
89. On the "Danglu" in the horse ornament, there is a one-horned sheep with its body turned upside down, which is a classic pattern of the Eurasian steppe, which is highly similar to the horse ornament in the tomb of the Xiongnu.
90. 参见：Francis Fukuyama.Against Identity Politics: The New Tribalism and the Crisis of Democracy,Foreign Affairs,2018,Vol.97，No.5.
91. See also: The Spring and Autumn Ram Biography: The Fourth Year of the Duke.
92. For example, in 979, Emperor Taizong of Song cut down the Northern Han Dynasty and said, "If the Northern Dynasty does not aid, the peace treaty will remain the same, otherwise there will be war." See also: Liao Shi Jingzong Jixia.
93. As Cheng Yi said, "The saints are afraid of people entering Yidiye, so the law of the Spring and Autumn Period is extremely rigorous." The southern Song Dynasty poems, represented by Lu You and Xin Zhiyi, often denounced the north as "Hu Yu" and "Fishy". See also: Qiu Mao's University Derivative Supplement, vol. 75.
94. "The Goths burned and plundered, and everywhere they went was a mess. They kill people when they see them, men, women and children, even infants in their infancy. The women watched as their husbands were killed and then taken away by them. Young and adult men were dragged raw from the bodies of their parents and forcibly taken away. Many elderly people were tied with their hands behind their backs, exiled to other places, and burst into tears at their ancestral homes that had been reduced to ashes. They lamented that they had survived but had lost their possessions and women. See: Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire, translated by Xiang Jun, CITIC Publishing Group, 2016 edition, p. 200.
95. See: Peter Heather, translated by Ma Bailiang, The Restoration of Rome, CITIC Publishing Group, 2020 edition, p. 5.
96. The fundamental point of the "layered" theory is: "The more the times pass, the longer the ancient history of the legend"; or: "The later the times, the earlier the ancient history is known; the more the literature is, the more ancient history is known". According to Gu Jiegang's point of view, the order of ancient history is exactly the opposite: Pangu appeared the latest but had the highest generation and the oldest qualifications (the founding ancestor), the three emperors (the emperor, the earth emperor, and the Thai emperor) followed, the Yellow Emperor and Shennong again, Yao Shun was more secondary, and Yu's generation was the smallest. For example, "Yu" first appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty, "Yao Shun" appeared in the Spring and Autumn Period, "Yellow Emperor" and "Shennong" appeared in the Warring States, "Three Emperors" appeared in the Qin Dynasty, and "Pangu" appeared in the Han Dynasty.
97. See: Gu Jiegang, "How I Made Up the < Ancient History Discernment >", Ancient History Discernment, Vol. 1, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1981 edition, p. 12.
98. In May 1923, Gu Jiegang put forward the above views in an article entitled "On the Ancient History Books with Mr. Qian Xuantong", but he also pointed out that "since the Spring and Autumn Period, the great powers have attacked and destroyed more and more small countries, the boundaries have become larger and larger, the nationalities have become more and more integrated, the concept of race has gradually faded and the concept of unity has become stronger, so the legends of the ancestors of many nationalities have gradually converged into one line. See: Gu Jiegang, The Complete Works of Gu Jiegang and Collected Essays on the Ancient History of Gu Jiegang (Vol. 1), Zhonghua Bookstore, 2010 edition, p. 202.
99. "The so-called history of the Orient is mainly to elucidate the general history of the rise and fall of the nations and the rise and fall of the nations of Eastern Asia, and stands side by side with the history of the West, constituting half of the history of the world." See also: Kuwabara Hidezo, History of the Middle East, The Complete Works of Kuwabara Hidezo (vol. IV), p. 17.
100. Fu Si Nian said in his letter: "Now the Japanese are propagating in Siam the former residences of the Shan people in Gui and Dian, and encouraging them to recover the lost land. A certain countryman has also gathered toasts within the borders of Myanmar, and recently accepted Chinese workers, and his ambitions are not small. Under such circumstances, we must not abuse the word 'nation' to summon the scourge of division. 'The Chinese nation is one', this is a belief, but also a fact. In the short term, we must enable the border people to implement their consciousness of the Chinese nation. Yihan is a family, which can be proved by the history of the Han people. That is to say, like my generation, the northerners who dare to guarantee that they have no Hu blood, and the southerners who dare to guarantee that they have no Baiyue, Li, and Miao bloodlines. Today's southwest is actually Jiangnan, Ba, and Guangdong a thousand years ago. This non-musicology also. See: Gu Jiegang, "The Chinese Nation is One", Yishi Bao Frontier Weekly, No. 9, February 9, 1939.
101. "Since 9/18, I have been in complete agreement with my old friend (Fu Si Nian). See also: Gu Jiegang, "The Chinese Nation is One", Yishi Bao, Frontier Weekly, No. 9, February 9, 1939.
102. See: Gu Jiegang, "The Chinese Nation is One", Yishi Bao, Frontier Weekly, No. 9, February 9, 1939.
103. See: Fei Xiaotong, "Discussion on the National Question," Yishi Bao, Frontier Weekly, No. 19, May 1, 1939.
104. "The Chinese nation has long since reached full nationalhood, and its political power is so great that when the forces that hinder reunification weaken slightly, the people can rise up and overthrow this unnatural situation of division." If otherwise, china could have been separated for a long time and had its stability, China would have long been fragmented and would not have become a nation. This is also enough to show that the strength of the Chinese nation is far above that of local governments. Gu Jiegang, "Continuation of the "Chinese Nation is One": Answer to Mr. Fei Xiaotong", Yishi Bao, Frontier Weekly, No. 23, May 29, 1939.
105. See: Gu Jiegang, "Continuation of the "Chinese Nation is One": Answer to Mr. Fei Xiaotong," Yishi Bao, Frontier Weekly, No. 23, May 29, 1939.
106. See: Fei Xiaotong, "The Pattern of Pluralism and Unity of the Chinese Nation", Journal of Peking University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), No. 4, 1989.
107. See: Fei Xiaotong, "The Centennial Sacrifice of Mr. Gu Jiegang", Reading, No. 11, 1993, pp. 5-10.
108. See: Fei Xiaotong, "The Centennial Festival of Mr. Gu Jiegang", Reading, No. 11, 1993, pp. 5-10.
109. "The Tatars established slavery and absolutism in the conquered countries; the Goths, after conquering the Roman Empire, established monarchies and freedoms everywhere." See also: Montesquieu, translated by Zhang Yanshen, On the Spirit of the Law (vol. 1), The Commercial Press, 1959 edition, p. 331.
110. See: Hegel, translated by Wang Zaoshi, Philosophy of History, Shanghai Bookstore Publishing House, 1999 edition, p. 111.
111. Before Xiaowen, "China has no lord, so orthodoxy is in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and Song Dynasty"; after Xiaowen, "China has a lord, then orthodoxy belongs to Later Wei and Later Zhou".
112. See: Yuanjing, vol. IX.
113. The Brahma Sutra says, "All its observations and choices are separations." The one who has no distinction is Bodhi. (Tsongkhapa: A Broad Treatise on the Path of Bodhidharma), the Zen Inscription of Faith has "There is no difficulty in reaching the path, but there is no choice."
114. See: Ma Zhu, Guide to Halal, Self-Introduction, Halal Canon (vol. 16), p. 510.
115. In the section "Mongol King's Unity" in the Collected Histories of Han and Tibet, it is stated: "In the year of the Yangtu Tiger, Emperor Genghis Chinese New Year's Eve San seized the throne by force from a king named Dezi who became emperor of Tang after King Muyajiaguo, and the Mongols held the Tang dynasty in Han China for twenty-three years. ”
116. The Biography of Wei Shu Cui Hao: "Hao Yue: 'The subject tastes the private characters of the recent world, and does not dare not go unheard of. If Wang Meng ruled the country, Guan Zhongye of Jian Jian, Murong Xuangong's auxiliary young lord, Murong Wei's Huo Guangye, Liu Yu's ping rebellion, and Sima Dezong's Cao Caoye. ’”
117. The Biography of Wei Shu Cui Hao: "He Hao Yu Zhi put it in the sill and sent it to the south of the city, so that dozens of guards could rush to it, and the cries were howling, and they smelled on the road." The humiliation of the self-slaughtered is not as great as that of the great. ”
118. Book of Zhou, Emperor Wenji, Northern History, Zhou Benji.
119. Wang Guowei: The History of Song and Yuan Opera, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1998 edition, "Self-Introduction".
120. Biography of the High Monk, Vol. IX.
121. Biography of a High Monk, Vol. V.
122. The Collected Poems of Lefu quotes the Lefu Guangshi: "Northern Qi Shenwu attacked Zhou Yubi, and the soldiers died fourteen and fifteen, and Shenwu was indignant. The King of Zhou ordered: 'Gao Huan rats, personally offend Yubi. As soon as the sword and crossbow were fired, the culprit killed himself. 'When the gods heard of it, they sat down with the people of peace, and led the nobles to the nobles, so that Huo Lujin sang "Shu Le", and the gods and martial themselves were reconciled. Its songbook is rare and humble, and it is easy to speak in unison, so its sentence length is uneven. ”
Source: China Nationalities Magazine, No. 3, 2021
Editor-in-charge: Niu Zhinan Jin Xiangde
Processing: Gullistan
Source: China Net