College entrance examination review points
Compulsory booklet
1. Problem solving process and general ideas:
The first is to review the questions, the most important thing is to clarify the purpose of the examination (do not answer the question), pay attention to distinguish three kinds of information: grasp the valid information, abandon the invalid information, and eliminate the interference information;
The second is to recall and organize relevant knowledge points;
The third is to solve problems, flexibly use relevant knowledge, and pay attention to the use of accurate and effective information. See the keywords clearly: all, all, certain, must, fundamental, only, affirmative, complete, direct, primary, correct, incorrect, wrong...
2. Distinguish between stress, reflex, adaptability and hereditary
Stress: plant-oriented movements, perceptual movements, animal tendencies, reflexes (a... only... Most common)
Retroreflection: nervous system (must have a complete reflex arc)
Adaptability: the result of long-term natural selection
Hereditability: deciding, controlling when choosing
The basis of all life activities: metabolism
Basis of matter: the various elements that make up an organism and its compounds
Structural basis: cells
The basis of growth, development, reproduction, heredity, variation: cell division
3. Summarize the 10 foundations The material basis of successful transgenic GM: all of them are composed of four deoxynucleotides
The structural basis of successful transgenics: DNA and spiral structure
Theoretical basis for sexual hybrid breeding and genetic engineering: genetic recombination
Theoretical Basis of Plant Tissue Culture: Totipotency of Plant Cells (Obtained Individuals)
Theoretical basis of animal cell culture: cell proliferation (no individual obtained)
The basis of plant protoplast fusion and animal cell fusion: the fluidity of cell membranes
Descriptive biology stage: before 1900
Experimental biology stage: 1900-1953, marked by the re-proposed of Mendelian's laws of inheritance,
With the help of experimental means, physical and chemical technology
4. Molecular biology stage: After 1953, the hallmark is the DNA double helix structure model
One of the greatest discoveries of the 20th century
Directions: Macro: Ecology Microscopic: Molecular level
5. Essential elements, plant mineral elements
Large number of elements: (C, H, O) N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg (9 species) (minerals 6 species)
Trace elements: Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Cu, Mo, Cl (not Al), Ni (8 species)
C Most Basic C H O N Basic C H O N P S Main O Wet Weight Most
The different types of biological elements are generally the same, and the content varies greatly
Key summary: The important role of N P K Ca Mg Fe B
Free water: a good solvent that facilitates the transport of substances and the conduct of chemical reactions
6 Binding water: a component of cellular structure
The more free water, the stronger the metabolism; the more bound water, the stronger the resistance to stress, free water and bound water can be
Convert to each other
Composition: Mg→ composition of chlorophyll, Fe→ hemoglobin, P, Ca, I and so on
7, inorganic salt function to maintain cell morphology and function: normal saline
Life Activity: Ca→ Convulsions (Mammals)
Maintain cellular osmolality and acid-base balance The higher the concentration→ the higher the osmolality
Monosaccharides: glucose, ribose, deoxyribose (monosaccharides are found in animals and plants)
Vegetable disaccharides: sucrose, maltose
8, the classification of sugar Animal disaccharides: lactose
Vegetable polysaccharides: cellulose, starch
Animal polysaccharides: glycogen (liver glycogen, muscle glycogen)
Soluble reducing sugars: fructose, glucose, maltose
Fat: Energy storage
9. Lipid classification Lipids: phospholipids (the basic skeleton of membrane structure, more phospholipids in the brain, eggs and soybeans)
Sterols: cholesterol, sex hormones, VD, aldosterone, maintenance of metabolic and reproductive processes
10. Write out the connection method of the nucleic acid basic composition unit nucleotide (will draw a sketch)
Five-carbon sugar A, T, G, C deoxynucleotides→ DNA is mainly present in the nucleus
Phosphate nucleotides
N-based A, U, G, C ribonucleotides→ RNA are mainly present in the cytoplasm
Basic composition unit: amino acids (write out the general formula)
Amino acid binding method: dehydration and condensation
Peptide bond: ─CO─NH─
The naming of polypeptides: a few amino acids are called several peptides
The reasons for protein diversity: species, quantity, order of arrangement, spatial structure
Composition: Muscle
Catalytic action: enzymes
11, protein structure protein function transport function: carrier, hemoglobin
Regulatory effect: protein hormones (growth hormone, insulin, gonadotropins)
Immune effects: antibodies (harmonic memory: dog noodles)
Number of peptide bonds = number of amino acids (N) - number of peptide chains (M)
Correlation calculation Protein molecular weight = N×a-18× (N-M)
Base in genes (DNA): Bases in mRNA: Number of amino acids = 6:3:1
Several peptide chains with at least a few amino groups and several carboxyl groups (at least two ends have)
12. Identification of substances in biology textbooks
13. Protoplasm: the living substances in the cell, excluding the cell wall
Cytoplasm: A colloidal substance inside the cell membrane and outside the nucleus
Protoplasts: Plant cells are left after the cell wall is removed
Protoplasm: Cell membranes, vacuole membranes, and cytoplasm between two membranes
The cytosol has different compositions
Matrix Chloroplast matrix Contains different enzymes between the three
The mitochondrial matrix functions differently
Composition: protein, phospholipids, glycoproteins (recognition, information transmission, etc.)
Basic skeleton: Phospholipid bilayer (the basic skeleton that distinguishes DNA)
Structural characteristics: fluidity Embodiment: animal cell membrane inverted, amoeba, fertilization effect
14. Cell membrane Fluorescent material movement White (phagocytic) cells Cell engineering Endocytosis and excretion
Features: Selectable transmittance (depending on protein): seawater desalination, sewage purification
Active transport: mineral ions, glucose, amino acids, auxin
In and out of the membrane free diffusion: water, O2, CO2, alcohol, glycerin, cholesterol, fatty acids
Fat-soluble V, benzene, etc
15. Organelles (refer to textbook cell diagram)
Organelles that produce water: chloroplasts, mitochondria, ribosomes, no centrosomes and chloroplasts in the roots of higher plants
Structures that produce ATP: chloroplasts, mitochondria, cytoplasmic stromal in vivo parasites
Nuclear membrane Bilayer membrane structure mRNA → outside
Structure Of the nuclear pores The channels of macromolecular matter in and out of the nucleus protein →
16. Cell nucleus Chromatin/body Two forms of the same substance at different times are dyed dark by alkaline dyes (interval refers to substances can be called chromosomes)
Functional sites for the storage, replication and transcription of genetic material
A control center for metabolism
Mature mammalian erythrocytes are seedless, free of various organelles, and do not synthesize proteins
17. Red blood cells Chicken blood cells extract DNA
Frog erythrocytes undergo mitosis (non-spindles, chromosomes, DNA replication)
Cell-free structure (taxonomic status) Bacterial virus (bacteriophage)
18. Viruses parasitize in living organisms (different hosts, divided into three categories) plant viruses
Only DNA or RNA animal viruses
Templates are provided only (raw materials, energy, enzymes, ribosomes, tRNA are provided by the host)
nucleic acid
Influenza virus Capsid Nucleocapsid Tobacco mosaic virus, bacteriophage only nucleocapsid
Capsular spike (capsid determines viral antigen specificity)
HIV, SARS, and tobacco mosaic viruses are all RNA viruses (RNA structure instability, high frequency of mutation)
Presence or absence of nucleus (eukaryotic/prokaryotic)
19. Can classify the same organism from different angles Metabolism type (assimilation/alienation)
Ingredients in the ecosystem (raw, dissipated, divided)
Non-cellular organisms: viruses Bacteria, cyanobacteria, actinomycetes, chlamydia, mycoplasma
Prokaryotes Cell wall: peptidoglycans
(1) Biological organelles: only ribosomes, no other complex organelles
Cell organism nucleomimetic: no nucleus membrane, no chromosome (one DNA)
Representative: Plants, animals (including protozoa)
Eukaryotes Fungi (single-celled yeasts, molds, macromycetes)
Prokaryotes have DNA that does not bind to proteins → → no chromosomes→ cannot be mitosis and meiosis→ does not follow Mendel's laws→ only genetic mutations have no other variations
Autotrophic aerobic type: green plants, nitrifying bacteria, cyanobacteria
(2) Heterotrophic aerobic type: animals, fungi, aerobic bacteria, and silkworms other than parasites in vivo
Heterotrophic anaerobic type: parasites, anaerobic bacteria (lactic acid bacteria, tetanus bacillus, methanogene bacillus, etc.)
Facultative anaerobic type: yeast, E. coli
Abiotic substances (air, moisture, inorganic salts) and energy (sunlight, heat)
Producer (autotrophic type): mainly refers to green plants and nitrifying bacteria and cyanobacteria
(3) Ecosystem Consumers (heterotrophic type): animals, parasitic and symbiotic organisms that remove earthworms and dung beetles
Classification of components: primary, secondary, tertiary, ivy (e.g. rhizobium)
Decomposers: earthworms, dung beetles, heterotrophic saprophytic microorganisms (mushrooms, saprophytic bacteria)
Pay attention to the difference between "nourishment" and "oxygen" when doing the questions
Note whether the angle of the question is from the perspective of assimilation, alienation, or metabolic type
20. Cells with continuous mitotic cell cycle: meristem zone, formation layer, fertilized egg, cancer cell, partial stem cell, germination layer
DNA: Replication is doubled, and two daughter cells are halved
Chromosomes: Replication is not doubled, and the milament is doubled, and the two daughter cells are halved
Chromatids: Replication has 2 times the chromosome, the division is 0, and the subtraction is halved after the first division to two daughter cells
Chromosomes: DNA has a monomer = 1:2 No monomer = 1:1
(1) Represent the change curve of DNA (2) Represent the change curve of chromosomes (3) Please draw your own change curve of chromatids
Interwilding period: long time, starting point, chromosomal replication
Pre-stage: two appearances, two losses, the most obvious change: the appearance of chromosomes
Mid-term: The silk dots are neatly arranged on the equatorial plate, the best time to observe
21. Mitosis And division period Later stage: the point of differentiation, sister chromatids separate, become two identical child chromosomes, move to the poles; the number of chromosomes doubles
Terminal: The opposite of the previous period
Main features: Chromosomal replication and even distribution
Early stage: Spindles are formed in different ways (centrosomes)
The difference between mitosis in animal and plant cells Centrosomes replicates in the interphase and separates in the previous period
End stage: cytoplasm divides in different ways (Golgi apparatus)
22. Judge the mode and period of animal cell division
(1) Chromosome scattered distribution → pre-stage: whether the union will form a quartet (is to subtract I)
No→ There is the same as the silk None is the same as minus II
(2) Chromosomes are arranged in the middle of the central →: the centromere points on both sides of the equatorial plate → minus I;
The filament point on the equatorial plate → have the same silk None is the same as minus II
(3) Chromosomes move to the poles→ late stage: homologous chromosomes move separately (with monomers) to the poles→ minus I
The child chromosome (no monomer) moves to the two poles→ there is the same as the mitogen, there is no same as the subtraction II (look at the pole)
(4) Pay attention to the judgment of homologous chromosomes: first look at odd and even numbers, odd numbers → no similarity; even numbers → and then look at the shape and size
→ two are the same, and if they are different, they are not the same. (Note that only one pole is seen after the silk point is split)
(5) Pay attention to whether the division of the cytoplasm is equal: equal → primary spermatocytes or first polar bodies;
Unequal → primary or secondary oocytes (what are the resulting daughter cells?). ）
Persistence: Throughout the life process, the embryonic period reaches its maximum
23. Cell differentiation Irreversible: it does not contradict the dedifferentiation and re-differentiation of tissue culture
Genetic material does not change (selective expression) Nor does it change during surgery
The process of stability differences in morphology, structure, and physiological function of the offspring of the same cells.
The root cause of cell differentiation: the result of selective expression of genes
Concept: Affected by carcinogenic factors, it no longer differentiates and proliferates malignantly
Infinite proliferation
Characteristics Morphological structure changes
24. Changes in the surface of cancer cells (reduced glycoproteins, easy to exercise)
Carcinogens: physical carcinogens, chemical carcinogens, viral carcinogens
Direct cause: exposure to carcinogens
Root cause: Proto-oncogenes are activated
Decreased water Volume decreased Cell atrophy Metabolism slowed down
Enzyme activity decreases for white hair
25. Senescent cell characteristics Pigment gradually accumulates age spots
The nucleus increases in volume, the chromatin shrinks, and the stain deepens
The permeability of the cell membrane changes , the transport function of substances is reduced
26. Comparison table of enzymes, hormones and vitamins:
27, with specificity: tRNA, vector, receptor, enzyme, antibody, hormone, DNA and so on...
DNA characteristics: stability, diversity, specificity
Characteristics of enzymes: high efficiency, specificity, diversity, affected by temperature and pH
When verifying that enzyme activity is affected by temperature and pH, it is necessary to reach the corresponding environment before allowing the enzyme to meet the reactants. The three strong acids, neutral, and strong bases represent:
Gastric acidic, saliva neutral, pancreatic fluid intestinal fluid alkaline (remember)
The high temperature of peracid and alkali irreactivates the molecular structure of the enzyme, and the low temperature inhibits the activity of the enzyme and can be restored
Commonly used energy substances in cells: glucose (substrate for respiration)
The main energy substance in the organism: sugars
Direct Energy for Life Activities: ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
28. The ultimate energy source of life activities: solar energy
Energy storage substances in the organism: fat (high proportion of C and H, release more energy)
Plant intracellular energy storage substance: starch
Animal intracellular energy storage substance: glycogen
ATP structure simplified: A─P∽P∽P
Photosynthetic photoreaction (not used for other activities)
29. Energy source in ATP Respiration (cytoplasmic matrix, mitochondria) (aerobic, anaerobic)
Creatine phosphate (high-energy phosphate compound)
ATP overdose --- hydrolysis; ATP deficiency ----- generated
enzyme
C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O 6CO2+12H2O+ energy
C6H12O6 2CO2+2C2H5OH (alcohol) + energy
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 (lactic acid) + energy
30. Light energy
CO2＋H2O (CH2O)＋O2
chloroplast
NADP＋＋H＋＋2e NADPH
ATP ADP+Pi+ Energy The substance is reversible and the energy is irreversible
Another enzyme
ATP: ADP+Pi+Energy ATP
Active chemical energy is stored in
NADPH：NADP＋＋H＋＋2e NADPH
Hydrophilic substances: protein> starch> cellulose
Bloat and absorb water
Meristems, formation layers, dried seeds, etc
Absorption principle: osmotic effect (semi-permeable film, concentration difference)
Permeable water absorption (must be water or other solvent)
Condition: with large vacuoles
Promotes moisture absorption and transport
31. Water metabolism Loss (transpiration) significance Promote the transport of mineral elements
Reduce the foliar temperature
What does the mass wall represent?
What fills the walls? (Cell wall permeability)
Isolation of internal factors: The protoplasmic layer is more flexible than the cell wall
Separation of external causes: concentration difference
Conditions for plasma wall separation: living cells, walled, large vacuoles, poor concentration
Plasma wall isolation Conclusion: Verify the survival of cells, verify elasticity, and verify osmosis
And recombination Automatic recovery: ethylene glycol, glycerol, urea, KNO3 and other solutions
Note: 50% sucrose solution and 15% hydrochloric acid can kill cells
The more obvious the separation of the mass wall, the stronger the water absorption ability
Cell fluid concentrations are measured using a series of concentration gradients
Absorption process: active transport (carrier, energy)
Closely related to respiration: provides energy to cultivate loose soil in the middle
No soil-loaded culture oxygenation
Absorption characteristics and moisture absorption are two relatively independent processes (mode, power, carrier, selectivity)
32. Mineral metabolism Absorption is selective, depending on the type and quantity of carriers
Non-reusable elements: Fe, Ga, etc., lack of new tissues appear symptoms
Utilization of ions: K+
Available elements Unstable compounds: Deficiency, symptoms of old tissues
N、P、Mg
Soilless cultivation: verification of essential mineral elements (note the control)
Carotene: orange-yellow The fastest and the least (narrowest)
Carotenoids Lutein: Yellow What color glass shines what light
33, pigment chlorophyll a: blue-green most (widest)
Chlorophyll Chlorophyll b: yellow-green the slowest
The photolysis of water O2 comes entirely from water
Substance changes The formation of ATP
Photosynthesis process Photoreaction Energy change: Light energy → electrical energy→ active chemical energy
Energy changes: Active chemical energy → stable chemical energy
Fixation of dark reaction CO2: C5+CO2→2C3
Changes in matter
Reduction of CO2: (write it yourself)
Light is reacted on a thin film with a chloroplast-like cystic structure
Photosynthetic site dark reaction in the chloroplast matrix
When CO2 decreases C3 ↓ C5↑
The law of change of C3 and C5 When the light is weakened, C3 ↑ C5↓
Explain less from the angle of reason: consume more; generate less
Net photosynthetic intensity = Actual photosynthetic intensity – respiratory consumption
Lighting: Affects light response
Temperature: Affects enzyme activity
Factors affecting photosynthesis Moisture:
CO2: Affecting Dark Responses (Photosynthetic Lunch Break)
Mineral elements: N, P, Mg, K (self-collation)
34. Summarize the basic ideas of the experiment:
(1) Read the title to find the purpose of the experiment and find a single variable
(2) Analyze material tools, principles, and steps
Labeling More than two groups of experimental devices must be grouped labels
Equipped with instruments according to experimental requirements, reagents, etc
(3) Single-variable control experiment culture Pay attention to the conditions for culture (same, suitable)
Observation and recording can be done with the help of microscopes, PH dipsticks, etc
(4) Draw conclusions based on the purpose of the experiment, predict the results, and draw conclusions
Note the different responses of the exploratory experiment and the validation experiment
35. Cell respiration (remember) enzymes
C6H12O6 2 Pyruvate CH3COCOOH+4[H]+ Energy (Less)
Cytoplasmic matrix
Process 2CH3COCOOH+6H2O 6CO2+20[H]+Energy (Less)
mitochondria
Aerobic respiration 24[H]+6O2 12H2O+Energy (multi)
Condition: Oxygen
Place: Cytoplasmic matrix and mitochondria (mainly mitochondria)
Condition: Hypoxia
Anaerobic respiration site: cytosol
Process Potato tubers, beet roots, skeletal muscle, lactic acid bacteria
Plants, especially flooded plants (such as rice, lotus root), yeast
The essence of cellular respiration: breaks down organic matter (thoroughly or incompletely), releases energy
The Significance of Cellular Respiration: Energy Supply Raw Materials (Linking the Hub of Three Types of Organic Matter Transformation)
Seed germination: Total organic matter ↓ species ↑ Absorption of water (positive germination, unemonitored, post-germination)
36. Potato sprouting (onion, garlic) total organic matter ↓ organic species ↑
Embryonic development: total organic matter ↓ total DNA ↑ single cell volume ↓ Total cell volume does not change
Make yogurt from fresh milk (noodles): the total energy is reduced, the variety of organic matter is increased, and the nutritional value is increased
Storage of dried seeds: three lows: low temperature, low oxygen (avoid anaerobic breathing to produce alcohol), low water
Preservation of fruits, vegetables and flowers: low temperature, low oxygen, high CO2/N2
Sauerkraut sealed Wine is first ventilated and then sealed The reason why Turpan grapes (cantaloupe) are sweet: the temperature difference between day and night is large
No O2 is consumed, and CO2 is released for anaerobic respiration
The amount of alcohol equal to the amount of CO2 is performed only anaerobic breathing
The amount of CO2 released is equal to the amount of absorption of O2 for aerobic respiration only
The amount of CO2 released is greater than the absorption of O2, which has both oxygen respiration and anaerobic respiration;
Excess CO2 comes from anaerobic respiration calculations
The amount of alcohol is less than the amount of CO2 There is both oxygen respiration and anaerobic respiration, and excess CO2
Comes from aerobic breathing
Anaerobic respiration→ CO2 and alcohol; lactic acid
Oxidative decomposition Aerobic respiration → CO2 and H2O
Muscle glycogen (energy for strenuous exercise)
37. Glucose metabolism Hepatic glycogen (maintenance of blood glucose concentration)
80-120mg/dL is converted into non-sugar substances
Urine sugar
Three Sources of Sugar in Sugar Metabolism Three ways to go to sugar in sugar metabolism
The difference between non-sugar substances in source and way
Diseases related to glucose metabolism: hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia (>130), diabetes mellitus (three more and one less)
(Dietary medication: do not eat, eat less, eat more)
Synthesis of proteins (enzymes, hormones, antibodies, carriers, receptors, etc.)
Amino conversion acts to form new non-essential amino acids in constant quantities
38. Protein metabolism Nitrogen-containing part Urea (liver) kidney
(Endemic metabolites) are excreted in vitro
Deamination Oxidative decomposition
Does not contain nitrogen
Converted into sugars, fats, etc
Essential Amino Acids (8): Su, Liang, Valerian, Lai, Isoliang, Phenylpropyl, Methyl Sulfur, Color (Harmonic Memory)
Three sources of amino acids The way to go of amino acids
Intermediates: nitrogen-free partial pyruvate in respiration
Proteins and amino acids cannot be stored in the body; pigments cannot store light energy
It is not good to drink milk on an empty stomach: oxidative decomposition after deamination
A certain amount of protein should be ingested every day: not stored, incompletely transformed, decomposed and renewed
Animal protein is more complete than plant protein amino acids (corn rice lack of lysine mixed with soybeans)
Children, pregnant women, and those who have just recovered from serious illness should eat more protein (in and out of >)
GPT alanine transaminases detect hepatitis (eat less fat) and convert glutamic acid to alanine
Stored in: subcutaneous connective tissue, mesenteric membrane, large omentum
39. Lipid metabolism Oxidative decomposition
Conversion to sugars (it is difficult to convert into amino acids in proteins in animals)
Fat: C H more O less, more oxygen consumption, more energy release produces more metabolic water (such as camels)
Diseases of lipid metabolism: atherosclerosis, fatty liver (associated with phospholipids) further cirrhosis
40. The mutual transformation of the three major nutrients
fat
Carbohydrate Amino acids (non-essential) + essential amino acids proteins
You can get fat by eating anything, and eating nothing will lack energy
Bidirectional: hepatic glycogen, substance transformation, extracellular fluid, biofilm germination link, ATP and ADP
detoxification
Hepatic glycogen
41. The function of the liver Secretes bile (emulsified fat) to synthesize cholesterol and phospholipids
Synthesizes protein 40% more than 40% protein GPT
Fatty liver (pay attention to the cause, prevention and treatment)
Regulation of plant hormones
42. Regulation of life activities Animal neuromodulation and humoral regulation
Regulation of microbial enzyme synthesis and enzyme activity
Regulation of hormone secretion: feedback regulation
Feel the light stimulated area at the tip
The area where the light bends is a segment under the tip
43. There is auxin and the distribution is uniform, and the germ sheath grows straight: there is auxin but the distribution is uneven and curved to the light
Growth causes: uneven distribution of auxin in the photo-→ on one side→ → fast-growing → curved towards light on the backlit side
Lateral transport: at the tip (lateral transport to the backlit side when illuminated on one side)
Promotes elongation growth (elongated growth, not division) cell segmentation
Promotes the rooting of cuttings
44, the role of auxin to prevent flowers and fruits
Promotes fruit development (not ripe, ripe is ethylene)
Seedless tomato: remove the stamens at the flowering stage, and apply the pistil stigma with a suitable concentration of auxin analogues to promote the development of the ovary, which is an environmentally induced variation and cannot be inherited
Seedless watermelon: the principle is different, chromosomal variation Seedless watermelon can be inherited
Banana: triploid, seedless, reproductively nutritious
Peaches and apricots (those who eat fruit) can be applied with auxin to reduce the loss of unatturated powder
Melon seeds, beans, and rapeseed cannot be used by obtaining empty grains of seeds, and the seeds are obtained by double fertilization
Whether pollination → seeds are present→ whether auxin can be produced→ whether fruits can develop
45. Characteristics of auxin action: duality (low concentration promotion, high concentration inhibition and even killing of plants)
Top advantage: cotton, fruit tree, tea tree, hedge Transplanting is the top advantage of removing the root
Herbicides (dicotyledonous plant sensitive) Different organs: root (10-10) > buds (10-8) > stems (10-4)
Localization of roots (near-earth side inhibition, dorsal side promotion)
Backlighting of roots (backlit side inhibition, light side promotion)
Dorsality of the stem (near-ground side promotes fast, dorsal side promotes slowly, but both promote)
Phototropism of the stem (backlit side promotes fast, light side promotes slowly, but both promote)
46. Types and functions of animal hormones
Regulators in fluid regulation are chemicals: hormones, CO2 (effective in the respiratory center), H+, histamine (not hormones), etc
Removal of the uterus and normal ligation do not affect the first sexual characteristics of organisms, but ligation of spermary ovarian veins is different
Less thyroid hormones: loss of appetite, bloated body, sluggish movements, mental atrophy, slow metabolic heartbeat, low body temperature,
In addition small animals develop stop hyperthyroidism (thyroid hormones): restlessness, emotional tension
Feedback regulation: hypothalamic →... Hormone-releasing hormone → pituitary →... Hormone → glands→ hormone → feedback affects the interaction between hypothamus and pituitary hormones: synergistic antagonism
47. Non-conditioned reflexes: blinking, sucking, hand shrinking, knee jumping, scratching, urination, secretion of digestive juices
Conditioned Reflexes: Food Unconditioned Stimuli Ringtones are not related to stimuli→ conditioned stimuli → form conditioned reflexes
Reflex arc: receptors→ afferent nerves (with ganglia) → nerve centers→ efferent nerve → effectors (also including muscles and glands)
Nerve fibers on bidirectional conduction during resting time outside positive and negative
Resting potential → stimulates the local current → the → action potential → potential difference
48. Excitatory conduction between neurons (synaptic conduction) Unidirectional conduction by transmitter (such as choline acetate)
Synaptic vesicles → presynaptic membrane → synaptic space→ the postsynaptic membrane (with receptors) → excitation or inhibition
Unidirectional conduction is the transmission of dendrites or cell bodies from one neuronal axon to the next
Chemogenesis: The simplest directional response of animals to the outer boundary environment
Congenital behavior Unconditioned: (example yourself)
Instincts: nesting, weaving nets, migrating, feeding offspring
Insui: A newborn animal
Acquired behavior imitation: young animals
49, animal behavior conditioned reflex: food unconditioned stimuli ringtone unrelated stimuli → conditioned stimuli → form a conditioned reflex
The highest form of acquired sexual behavior: judgmental reasoning
The Basis of Acquired Behavior: Conditioned Reflexes Human learning is based on concepts
The cortex represents the inversion of the relationship between the location and the parts of the body
The length of magnification of the objective is the opposite of that of the eyepiece
50, the opposite, upside down and like an upside down
The resilience stability and resilience stability of ecosystems are opposites
51, joint action: neuromodulation and humoral regulation qualitative genetic and nuclear genetic Phenotype = genotype + environment
Neuromodulation controls humoral regulation, and humoral regulation affects neuromodulation
Neuromodulation is rapid and accurate, small in scope, and short in time
Vegetative reproduction: grafting of roots of higher plants with pressed strips
Budding reproduction: yeast, water
Asexual reproduction Spore reproduction: mold, fungus (mushroom) moss, ferns to keep the mother
Divided reproduction: bacteria /protozoa single-celled organisms are excellent
Cloning Tissue culture (with tip) also belongs to the asexual reproductive trait
52, reproductive species Sexual reproduction (easy gene recombinant variation):
Parthenogenesis (male peak) IVF
There is a combination of reproductive cells of both sexes (both belong to sexual reproduction)
Angiosperms are double fertilized
53. Ontology of angiosperms
cotyledon
plumule
Parietal cells → spherical embryonic body hypocotyls embryo
↑ Radicle
Egg cells → fertilized eggs ↑ nutrients
Blastocyst ↑1 Sperm basal cell → embryo stalk seed
↓1 sperm
Ovules 2 polar nuclei→ fertilized polar nuclei→ endosperm nuclei→ endosperm cells → endosperm fruits
子房 3N 3N 3N 3N
Beads are seed coated
Ovary wall Peel
(1) Correspondence Ovary → fruit Ovules → seed quantity relationship
One pollen grain provides two identical sperm → one seed
The angiosperm double-fertilized polar nucleus is exactly the same as the egg cell genotype, and the two polar nuclei are exactly the same
(2) 3N: Fertilized polar nucleus, endosperm nucleus, endosperm cells, endosperm
N: Secondary spermblasts, sperm cells, sperm, secondary oocytes, egg cells, polar bodies, polar nuclei, pollen, haploids
2N: The rest are generally 2N
(3) * Peel, * seed coat genotype and traits (color, taste) are the same as the mother, not cytoplasmic inheritance.
(4) Plant ontogenetic nutrition: embryo stalk, endosperm or cotyledon, self-photosynthesis
(5) Distinction: blastocyst (plant) blastocyst (animal)
(6) Pay attention to the combination of (1) the following two sentences, will write the embryo, endosperm genotype
1 sperm + 1 egg cell = embryo; 1 sperm + 2 polar nuclei (equivalent to 2 egg cells) = endosperm
54, combined with the previous 20-22 points to grasp the overall meiosis (copy once, split twice)
↓ Mitosis obtained
Interval: 1 seminal cells: chromosomal replication (DNA doubled, chromosome unchanged)
outline
Before addition I: Federation, quartet Note cross-swapping
Large I: The quartet is in the center, and the centroids are on either side of the equatorial plate
Minus I: 1 primary spermatocytes after I: homologous chromosomes are separated, non-homologous chromosomes are freely combined
Association (the law of separation, the law of free combination occurs)
Minus tetrameric end I: 1 cell → 2 The number is halved
The number of homologous chromosomes is separated
It is freely combined into non-homologous chromosomes
number
Minus II.: 2 Secondary Spermatocytes II. Pre: Scattered distribution of chromosomes
(Iso- II. Medium: The centroid point is in the center of the equatorial plate
Similar to mitosis → (but without homologous chromosomes)
After 4 sperm cells (isometric) II→
↓ Metamorphosis II: 2 cells → 4
4 sperm
1 tetragram = 1 pair of homologous chromosomes = 4 chromatids = 4 DNA
The difference between sperm and egg cell formation (whether it is equal, deformed, number of germ cells) the size of the two ends
One seminal cell (primary spermatocyte) produces 4 two sperm two identical to each other
One secondary spermatocyte produces 1 sperm
One egg protocelle (secondary oocyte) produces 1 egg cell
This organism can produce up to 2n sperm or egg cells n representing the logarithm of an allele (homologous chromosome).
55. Animal ontogenesis Post-embryonic development
(1) The → of the fertilized egg is split→ blastocyst (the first cavity) → the larvae of the protozoic embryo →
(2) Embryonic development The starting point of post-embryonic development (hatching or giving birth) The starting point of ontology: the fertilized egg
(3) Intestinal embryo One-hole two-chamber three-germ layer (embryo hole, reduced blastocyst cavity and prointestinal cavity, outer middle and inner three-germ layer)
(4) Internal →, exhalation, liver, pancreas, external → surface, sense, nerves.
Compulsory Next Book
56, the idea of proving that DNA is genetic material: separate and separate, direct observation of DNA
Diplococcus pneumoniae transformation experiment
57. Proof of genetic material experiments Bacteriophage-impregnated bacteria experiments (focusing on injected substances)
Reconstruction experiments of tobacco mosaic virus
58, DNA is the main genetic material The genetic material of most organisms is DNA
RNA viruses: HIV, SARS coronavirus, tobacco mosaic virus, plantain virus
Precipitation of DNA dissolved in NaCl solution: dissolving 2mol/L,
0.14 mol/L was precipitated and 0.015 mol/L was identified
59. Identification of DNA crude extraction Use cold alcohol to extract DNA with less impurities
DNA is stained blue by diphenylamine during boiling water baths
Triple filtration? Add distilled water twice?
Two reverse parallel deoxynucleotide chains
Lateral → basic skeleton: phosphoric acid and DNA alternately connected
60. DNA structure characteristics The inner → base
Base pair (hydrogen bond) base complementary pairing principle
A=T C=G
A＋G=C＋T=50% 嘌呤=嘧啶
(A1+T1)/(G1+C1)=M (specific identity of the sum of complementary bases)
则(A2+T2)/( G2 + C2)=M (A+T)/ (G + C)=M
61, base complementarity (A1 + G1) / (C1 + T1) = N (the ratio of non-complementary bases and sums is reciprocal on two single chains)
Pairing principle (A2+G2)/(C2+T2)=1/N (A+G)/(C+T)DNA=1 (1 on double strands)
(A1＋T1) = (A2＋T2) = (A＋U)mRNA= 1/2（A＋T）
(A1＋T1)% = (A2＋T2) %= (A＋U)mRNA%=（A＋T）%
A1%＋A2%=2A%
Time: Interval (first meiosis interval, or mitosis interval)
62, DNA replication conditions: raw materials, enzymes, energy, template + suitable temperature and PH value
Features: Semi-reserved replication (Note: Isotope-labeled molecules account for 2/2n of the chain account for 1/2n)
Transmission of genetic information → replication
63. DNA function The expression of genetic information → guide the synthesis of proteins (transcription and translation)
Transcription translation
DNA RNA Proteins (Central Law)
Reverse transcription (reverse transcription and RNA replication are only available in a few RNA viruses)
64 codons (on mRNA) 61 species (3 stop codons) that determine proteins tRNA 61
Anticodons (on tRNA) can be paired with codons to have specificity for tRNAs
Meet the principle of complementary pairing of bases: DNA composition itself, 5 arrows in the central law, 3 steps of genetic engineering
Mating: inbred, hybridized, measured, orthogonal, inverted, self-flowering/cross-pollination
Gene types: alleles, identical genes, dominant genes, recessive genes
64, remember several sets of concepts trait classes: relative traits, dominant traits, hidden traits, trait separation
Individual classes: genotype, phenotype, heterozygous, homozygous (stable inheritance)
n-pair allele (located on n-pair homologous chromosomes)
F1 gamete species 2n
F1 gamete combination number 4n
65, remember the base number F2 genotype 3n
F2 Phenotype 2n
Fn heterozygotes (1/2) n n represent the number of times the heterozygotes inbred themselves
Fn homozygote 1-(1/2)n (half explicit and recessive in homozygotes)
DD×DD
DD×Dd 1:0 full dominant at least one DD
DD×dd
A pair of genes Dd× Dd 3:1
Dd×dd 1:1 (crossover)
dd×dd 0:1 fully recessive
66. Proportions
YyRr×yyrr 1:1:1:1 (cross test) Two groups of 1:1
Yyrr×yyRr 1：1：1：1
Two pairs of genes YyRr× yyRr 3:3:1:1 A group of 1:1 a group of 3:1
Yyrr×YyRr 3：3：1：1
YyRr×YyRr 9:3:3:1 Two groups of 3:1 (remember)
Parents can be pushed by the proportion of offspring (inverse deduction method)
P： YYRR × yyrr
↓
F1 YyRr
67, remember will use ↓
F1配子2n YR YR yr
9 Y-R-Bibendo 1/16YYRR 2/16YyRR 2/16YYRr 4/16YyRr
F2 3 Y-rr unipotentifiability 1/16YYrr 2/16Yyrr
3yyR-unipotentifiable 1/16yyRR 2/16yyRr
1 yyrr double recessive 1/16yyrr
Proficiency in the use of Mendelian checkerboard methods: (as well as gamete cross line method, branching method, separate analysis method)
(1) How to judge the explicit recessivity A concept B trait separation
Animal mating is the easiest
(2) How to determine the genotype of the dominant individual (know the cause)
Plant inbringing is the simplest
(3) Continuous inbred breeding Aa does parental inbred n times heterozygous account for (1/2) n or so symmetry
(4) Will the male source of the bee (parthenogenesis in sexual reproduction) be used?
(5) Maternal development (peel, seed coat), and cytoplasmic inheritance (maternal inheritance), distinguished from embryonic
(The seed on a plant, the seed coat is the mother, that is, the parent, and the embryo inside is the progeny)
(6) Hybrid breeding steps: hybridization Continuous self-inbred multiple generations (different from plant somatic cell hybridization)
A. The type and probability of gametes produced by the courtship generation
(7) Principle of multiplication B, find offspring genotype and phenotype type
Principle of Addition C, Find a certain genotype or phenotype in the offspring probability of multiplying →→
D. Know that the sub-representative is the current type of pushing the parent
68, sex determination: hermaphrodite organisms are meaningful
Haploid genome n or n+1 (n+1 for hermaphrodites with chromosomes)
XBXB × XBY full dominance
XbXb × XbY full recessiveness
69. Marriage type XBXB × XbY full dominant
XBXb × XBY half carried by women and half color blindness for men
XBXb × XbY are half colorblind and have the most phenotys
XbXb × XBY females are all carried, and males are completely colorblind and judged traits according to sex
Sex is determined based on traits
(1) There are many male patients
Characteristics of X recessive genetic disease (2) Cross-inheritance Female → male → female (the middle must be male)
(3) The father and son of the female patient must be ill
70. Characteristics of X-dominant genetic disease: there are many female patients, and the mother and daughter of male patients must be sick
Characteristics of the genetic disease with Y: only in men, children pass on to children, children to grandchildren
Directly determine that the normal daughter disease of the parents must be an autosomal recessive disease
(Daughter born) Both parents are sick daughters, must be autosomal dominant disease
Both parents are looking at the female patient, and her father and son are both sick→ may be accompanied by X recessiveness
Son disease (born out of nothing, the son must be recessive)
→ recessive disease Seeing female patients, her father and son have normal → autosomal recessive
71. Genealogy (first determine the apparent recessivity, and then see whether it is located on X or on the autosomal body)
Both parents are sick Seeing a male patient, his mother and daughter have diseases→ may be X-dominant
Son Zheng (there are middle-born and no-born sons must be dominant)
→ dominant disease Looking at a male patient, his mother and daughter have normal → autosomal dominant
Exclusion of concomitant Y genetic disorders: female patients, discontinuation (discontinuous)
Finally, use the hypothesis testing method:
Tips: out of nothing is recessive, recessive inheritance to find female diseases, father and son have positive and unaccompanied sex;
There is no dominant middleborne, dominant genetics to find male diseases, mother and daughter have positive and unaccompanied sex.
Mutagenic breeding: penicillin, space pepper (principle: gene mutation)
Hybrid breeding (hybridization, inbringing, re-inbringing) (Principle: gene recombination)
Haplotype species (anther ex vivo culture, colchicine) (principle: chromosomal variation)
72, breeding method multiplication sports species (triploid asval vitre) (principle: chromosomal variation)
Genetically modified breeding (genetic engineering) can overcome distant hybridization
Cell engineering breeding (cabbage-kale) disorder of incompatibility orientation
Breeding of strains in microbial fermentation engineering (three types): mutagenesis breeding, genetic engineering, and cell engineering
73. Haplotype breeding process: significantly shorten the breeding period (advantages)
DDTT × ddtt
Hybridization
DdTt (get seeded for the first year)
Meius split
DT Dt dT dt Anthers—Sperm (androgen)
↓ Anthers ↓ Ex vivo ↓ culture ↓ ↓
DT Dt dT dt haploid
↓ Autumn water ↓ Xiansu ↓ treatment ↓ (haploid seedlings)
DDTT DDrr ddTT ddtt homozygous
The whole process is haplotype, only haploid called anther ex vivo culture (belongs to plant tissue culture)
Often hidden: albinism, phenylketonuria, congenital deafness and muteness
Often manifested: polydactyle, concurrent, cartilage hypoplasia
Single-gene genetic disorders with X recessive: hemophilia, color blindness, progressive muscular dystrophy
With X-dominant: anti-VD rickets
Cleft lip, anencephaly, essential hypertension, juvenile diabetes Genetic diseases Polygenic genetic diseases Characteristics: (1) many pairs (2) high incidence (3) aggregation (4) environment
Autosomal variants: loss of size 5→ cat call syndrome
Chromosomal disease No. 21 has one more → congenital stupidity
Sex chromosomal variation: gonadal dysplasia
74. Allergic reaction: the allergen secondary stimulation histamine
Immunodeficiency Autoimmune diseases: rheumatic heart disease, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic erythroblastic lupus
Immunodeficiency disease: congenital + acquired
Overnutrition or deficiency (coronary heart disease, obesity)
Endocrine disorders (diabetes, dysparities, dwarfism, gigantism, hyperthyroidism, etc.)
Haploid: Somatic chromosomes have half of a normal species (individuals are highly sterile)
Anthers are cultivated ex vis-à-vis gamete haploids of a species
Chromosome group: A group of non-homologous chromosomes
75, understanding will use a kind of homologous chromosome of equal size there are several sets of chromosomes
There are several chromosome groups in the same letter (regardless of case) in the genotype
There are several homologous chromosomes of varying sizes, and each chromosome group has several chromosomes
Non-hereditary variants: caused by the environment (including hormones)
Range: Base pairs
76. Mutation Gene mutation Time: DNA replication period (interphase)
Features: low frequency, harmful, multidirectional
Heritable variants are present when genetic recombination occurs in meiosis
GMOs also count
Structure (missing, adding, inverted, translocation)
Chromosomal variation The increase in individual chromosomes decreases
Number (Trisomy 21)
Chromosomal groups increase or decrease
77. Polyploid characteristics: "more nutrients" The theoretical basis of haploid and multiploid sports species:
Haploid characteristics: "single" highly sterile chromosomal number variation
Over-breeding
78. The Theory of Natural Selection Genetic Variation Internal Cause Basis
The struggle for survival external causes means are realized through (the struggle for survival).
Survival of the fittest results
Naturally selected organisms Artificial selection (flowers, poultry and livestock, etc.)
79. Why does the giraffe's neck grow? How is the resistance of insects explained?
There has always been variation (be sure that there is variation first) Mutation before selection
The environment changes
Struggle for survival
Stay or eliminate
Survival of the fittest
80. When calculating the frequency of companion genes, it is not counted as Y, and there is no allele on Y (remember)
Populations are the basic units of biological evolution and reproduction
The essence of biological evolution lies in the directional change of gene frequency
Mutation and genetic recombination, natural selection and isolation are the three basic links of speciation
81 Remember mutations and genetic recombination (heritable variations) are the raw materials for biological evolution
Natural selection directs the gene frequencies of such groups and determines the direction of biological evolution
Reproductive isolation is a necessary condition for speciation
From a genetic point of view, the environment has a selective role in gene frequency, which is achieved through (the struggle for survival).
Light intensity plays a decisive role in the physiology and distribution of plants. (Yang sheng, yin sheng)
Vertical distribution of photoalgae Green Brown Red (200m)
Chamomile (photoperiod or length of daylight)
Southern orange and northern pear (different distribution of plants in the northern hemisphere from south to north)
Temperature Vertical distribution of alpine plants (different distribution of plants from the foot of the mountain to the top of the mountain)
Non-biological factors Animals have large volume (conducive to heat production) at low temperatures, and small tail and ears (less heat dissipation)
Water: determining the distribution of terrestrial organisms (arid deserts are different from tropical rainforests)
Soil: Mineral elements
82、 Air: CO2 O2
Intraspecific struggles: in-species residual food, tadpoles poison themselves, and fight for mates
Intraspecific relations Intraspecific mutual aid: ants, bees
In terms of rhizobium, lichens, E. coli
Mutual benefit and symbiosis (Figure A) Hello me or I am good to you
Vegetarian Wheat and weeds Two grasshoppers of size
Interspecific relationship Competition (Figure C) The strong are getting stronger and stronger, and the weak are getting weaker
Biological factors In vivo: roundworms, tapeworms
Parasites: schistosomiasis, lice, fleas
Predation Interspecific: One eats the other (Figure B)
Predators change with the change of predators (those who add first and subtract are predators, generally more numerous)
A B C
Individual Two ways of growth: S-type J --type (refers to the whole curve)
Population density (most dominant) Animals: Marker recapture
Sampling Survey Method Plants: Sampling Methods
83, population birth rate, mortality rate, migration rate
Growth type (draw each chart)
Age composition Stable predicts future dynamic changes
Recessionary type
Sex ratio
Community Ecosystem (Community + Inorganic Environment)
Differentiate population (same species) community (all animal, plant, micro) ecosystem (community + surrounding inorganic environment)
84. The structure and function of the ecosystem
Components of ecosystems: abiotic matter and energy, producers, consumers, decomposers
Food chain starting point: producer plants
(1) Structure A large number of natural enemies are reduced The number of cannibals increases first, and then decreases until it stabilizes
Intermediate biodistrition (netting) of the food chain and food web: predominantly the effect on the next trophic level
(Nutritional structure) Interspecific relationship (not necessarily one)
A organism can account for different levels of nutrition "several levels of nutrition"
The material cycle is a cycle of chemical elements also known as the biological geochemical cycle
The material cycle is global
Recurring cyclic flows
Sources of CO2 Respiration, Decomposition, Burning of Fossil Fuels
Inorganic environments
Material cycle Carbon cycle Interme between biomes Organic matter forms
Greenhouse effect CO2 more (more produced, less used)
Nitrogen cycle Three kinds of nitrogen fixation, ammonization, nitrification, denitrification
(2) Function Three sources of sulfur cycle SO2: burning, decomposition, and volcanoes of fossil fuels
Source (source): Sunlight Starting point: Starting from the producer's fixed solar energy
Total Energy: The total amount of solar energy fixed by the producer
Energy Flow A bioenergy goes→ respiratory consumption, decomposer decomposition, under-nutrient level utilization, unused
Features: one-way flow, step by step decrement of 10%-20% Pay attention to calculation (at least, maximum)
Meaning: To make more energy flow to the part that is beneficial to humanity
Resists external interference and remains as it is
Resistance stability Reason has a certain ability to automatically adjust
(3) Stability The more types of producers and food chains, the stronger the automatic adjustment ability
Resilience Stability: Encounter interference Reverting to the status quo ante is the opposite of resistance stability
Economic benefits Material utilization increased (multi-level utilization)
85. Ecological agriculture:
Environment Energy efficiency increases food chain stability
Neuromodulation and humoral regulation
Nucleus inheritance and cytoplasmic inheritance
Light reaction and dark reaction
86, interdependence is inseparable humoral immunity and cellular immunity
Phenotype = genotype + environment
Assimilation and alienation Substance metabolism and energy metabolism
87. Biodiversity includes: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity
Medicinal value: artemisinin, five spirit fat, cicada metamorphosis
Industrial raw material: Jojoba (lubrication)
Scientific research value: genetically modified, inventive and creative inspiration
Direct use value Biodiversity is an indispensable gene pool for the cultivation of new varieties
Aesthetic value (tourism) Inspiration for literary and artistic creation
Biodiversity Value Indirect Use Value: Maintaining Ecosystem Stability (Ecological Function)
Potential use value: The use value that is not currently clear
88. Conservation in situ is the most effective measure for the conservation of biodiversity
It mainly refers to the establishment of nature reserves Representative natural ecosystems: Wuyi Mountain and Changbai Mountain
Rare and endangered animals and plants: Wolong, Wang Lang, Bird Island
Nature reserve functions: natural gene banks; nature laboratories; living nature museums
89 The concept of the biosphere: the sum of all living things on Earth and their inorganic environments
Biosphere:
Biosphere homeostasis: structural function is relatively stable
Plant damage sequence: leaf > petiole> the entire plant is affected
Relationship between leaf damage and leaf age: mature leaves > old leaves> young leaves
Summary of elective points
90. Homeostasis: Under the regulation of the nervous system and body fluids, the internal environment is relatively stable
Temperature, PH, osmotic pressure, water, inorganic salts, blood sugar and other chemical substances
Plasma 7.35—7.45 buffered to NaHCO3/H2CO3 Na2HPO4/NaH2PO4
2/3 intracellular fluid tissue fluid
91, 65% body fluid 1/3 extracellular fluid plasma lymph
Not blood (internal environment) Blood > plasma > serum
Food Urination
92, the source of water in the body Drinking water Drainage pathway Sweating the skin
Metabolizing water (aerobic respiration) face worms, camels exhaling lungs
(Amino acid dehydration condensation) drains the digestive tract
93, K does not eat and does not go through sweating
The adrenal glands secrete aldosterone (sterol) to preserve Na queuing K
High temperature work, heavy physical labor, vomiting, diarrhea→→ special attention should be paid to supplementing with sufficient water, Na (table salt)
The osmolality of extracellular fluid decreases, cold extremities, decreased blood pressure, and increased heart rate occur
K plays a decisive role in intracellular fluid cell osmolality, maintaining myocardial tension and normal myocardial excitability K heart
94, blood glucose three sources (food, decomposition, transformation) three directions
The main function of sugar: energy supply
Insulin is the only hypoglycemic hormone; increases the way of sugar, reduces the source of sugar glucagon, epinephrine and raises blood sugar
Glucagon promotes insulin secretion, but insulin inhibits glucagon secretion
Blood sugar rises
↓ ↑ ↑
A certain area of the hypothalamus → islet B cells Glucagon ↑ Epinephrin ↑
Insulin ↑ Islet A cells A adrenal medullary
↓ ↑ ↑ Another region of the hypothalamus
Blood glucose is lowered
< 50-60 Low < 45 Low 130 High > 130 > 160-180 Diabetic Urine
Excessive one-time glucose intake, temporary urine glucose Persistent diabetes mellitus is not necessarily diabetic, such as nephritis reabsorption is not enough
Diabetes High blood sugar and diabetes urine test blood test three more and one less symptoms?
Do not eat less and eat more coarse grains and vegetables that contain more dietary fiber
95. Nutrients:
Protein deficiency: infants, children, adolescents growth retardation, underweight adult puffiness
Provides energy
Nutrient Function Provides substances that build and repair body tissues
Provide substances that regulate the physiological functions of the body
Vitamins: Maintain the body's metabolism and certain special physiological functions
Vitamins: VA: night blindness VB: beriberi VC: scurvy VD: rickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis
96. Thermoreceptors are divided into cold receptors and temperature receptors (distributed skin, mucous membranes, internal organs)
Body temperature comes from the release of heat by metabolism (not provided by ATP), and body temperature constancy is the result of heat production, heat dissipation dynamic equilibrium
Cold Hot
↓ ↓
Skin cold receptors Temperature receptors blood vessels
↓ Afferent nerve ↓ plumi muscle
Hypothalamic thermoregulatory center Hypothalamic skeletal muscles
Efferent nerve ↓ sweat
Skin vasoconstriction Skeletal muscle war millet (capacity is very large) Vasodilation
Cutaneous hair muscle contraction Skin hair muscle contraction Sweat secretion increases
↓ goosebumps adrenaline ↑
Shrink sweat pores Myroplastic hormone ↑
Reduce heat dissipation Increase heat production Increase Heat dissipation Increase Heat dissipation Cannot reduce heat production
Regulates moisture, blood sugar, and body temperature
97. Hypothalamus Secretory hormone: hormone-releasing hormone antidiuretic hormone
Sensory stimulation: hypothalamic osmolal receptors
Conduction excitement: the production of thirst
The first line of defense: skin, mucous membranes, etc
The second line of defense of non-specific immunity (innate immunity): bactericidal substances in body fluids, phagocytes
98, immunity Specific immunity (acquired immunity) The third line of defense: humoral immunity and cellular immunity
It is mainly lymphocytes that exert an immune role in specific immunity
Origin and differentiation of lymphocytes: thymus - T bone marrow - B
Immune cells: B, T
The material basis of the immune system Immune organs: tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen
Immune substances: antibodies, lymphogenes (interleukins, interferons)
99, antigen characteristics: (1) general foreign body, but there are exceptions: such as cancer cells, damage or senescent cells
(2) Macromolecularity
(3) Specific antigenic determinants (capsids of viruses)
100. Humoral immunity: memory cells
↓ ↓ Stimulated by the same antigen again
Antigens →→phagocytic cells→→ T cells→→ B cells→→→ effector B cells →→→ antibodies
↑ (Ingestion processing) (Presentation) (Identification)
Induction Phase Reaction Phase Effect Phase
Effector B cells produce: antibodies (immunoglobulins), antitoxins, lectins
Effector T cell production: lymphocytes, interferons, interleukins
Recognition of antigens: B cells, effector T cells, memory B/T
Effector B cells are acquired in three ways (direct, indirect, memory)
Secondary immune response caused by re-stimulation of memory cells by the same antigen: more rapid and stronger
Re-acceptance of allergens (concept)
Allergic reactions Antibody distribution on the cell surface
Histamine: regulation of body fluids
101, immune disorders caused by diseases Autoimmune diseases: rheumatism ... Rheumatoid... Systemic lupus erythematosus
Congenital: congenital thymus hypoplasia
Immunodeficiency diseases Acquired: AIDS, pneumonia, tracheitis
(Human immunodeficiency virus) HIV↓ attacks T cells
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
102, pigment absorption, transmission, conversion of light energy Pigments can not store light energy
Proteins and amino acids cannot be stored
A few special states chlorophyll a final electron donor: water
High-energy, volatile electrons Photoenergy → Electrical Energy Final Electron Acceptor: NADP+
103, C4 plants: corn, sorghum, ganshu, amaranth
Both C3 and C4 CO2 have strong fixing ability Co2+C3→C4
Both C3 and C4 mesophyll cells contain normal chloroplasts
Elective C3 vascular bundle sheath cells without chloroplasts
Figure C4 Vascular bundle sheath cells containing atrium-free chloroplasts do not undergo a photoreaction
(P29) C4 Plant garland structure Inner ring: vascular sheath cells Outer ring: partial mesophyll cells
Reduces respiratory expenditure increases net photosynthetic volume
104, improve the yield extend the photosynthesis time Light: light quality, intensity, length
Increasing the effect of crops on increasing the photosynthetic area Temperature: affecting the activity of enzymes
Light energy utilization improves photosynthetic efficiency water
Mineral elements N, P, K, Mg
CO2 farm manure, CO2 generator
105, biological nitrogen fixation: N2 → NH3
Specificity of rhizobia: Fava bean rhizobia invade broad beans, beans, cowpeas; soybean rhizobia invade soybeans.
N-element
Rhizobia Organic matter Leguminous plants Heterotrophic aerobic
Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria Rhizoma Parenchymal cells callus
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria Autogenerated ≠ autotrophic rhizobia mixed with leguminous plants green manure
Autogenerated nitrogen-fixing bacteria: Round brown nitrogen-fixing bacteria (nitrogen fixing + hormones)
Biological nitrogen fixation (main: rhizobium) Industrial nitrogen fixation High energy nitrogen fixation
106, N cycle nitrification, denitrification, ammonization
Denitrification: oxygen deficiency NO3-→ N2
Isolation principle of autogenetic nitrogen-fixing bacteria: Selective growth of nitrogen-fixing bacteria by nitrogen-free medium
Material basis: DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts (plasmodic genes)
... mitochondria
107, cytoplasmic genetics typical representative of ... Chloroplasts There are three types of spotted plants →
Characteristics Maternal inheritance (cytoplasm in a fertilized egg comes almost exclusively from egg cells)
Offspring traits do not have a certain separation ratio
(When gametes are formed, the mass genes are not evenly distributed)
Coding region: Encodes proteins continuously
Prokaryotic cells Non-coding region Upstream of the coding region: RNA polymerase binding site
Gene structure Regulation Downstream of the coding region
108, the structure of genes Eukaryotic cells non-coding region
Gene structure Coding region Intron: non-coding sequence
Exons: Can encode protein introns > exons
Prokaryotic genes have no exon introns
It is mainly distributed in microorganisms
Scissors: Restriction enzyme specificity (specificity)
(more than 200 kinds) To obtain a sticky end
109, gene manipulation tools Needle and thread: DNA ligase: handrail (phosphate dipalom bond) is not a pedal (hydrogen bond)
Condition (1) Replication preservation (2) multi-tangent point (3) marker gene
Species: plasmid, virus
Means of transport: Carrier (1) Small cyclic DNA outside the chromosome
(2) Present in bacteria and yeasts
Plasmid characteristics (3) Plasmid is a commonly used carrier
(4) The most commonly used: E. coli
(5) No survival of host cells
Genetic engineering (gene splicing, recombinant DNA, transgenic) plays a decisive role
Direct separation Common shotgun methods are commonly used
Extraction of the gene of interest Synthetic (reverse transcription, synthesis of DNA from known AA sequences)
The gene of interest binds to the transport vector of the same restriction enzyme
110. Gene manipulation steps Introduce the gene of interest into the recipient cell → bacteria, yeasts, animals and plants
CaCl2 treatment of cell walls ( Fertilized eggs are good and reproduce fast)
Detection and expression of genes of interest: Are marker genes and genes of interest expressed?
Reverse transcription base complementary pairing
mRNA Single-stranded DNA Double-stranded DNA
Speculative Speculative Synthetic
Amino acid sequence mRNA sequence DNA base sequence Gene of interest
Drugs (insulin, interferon, interleukin, hepatitis B vaccine)
111. Achievements of Genetic Engineering: Genetic Diagnosis and Gene Therapy (Gene Replacement)
New Varieties (GMOs) Food Industry (Food)
Environmental monitoring (DNA molecule hybridization probe)
Biological nitrogen fixation, genetic diagnosis, gene therapy, single-cell proteins (microbial bodies themselves),
Monoclonal antibodies, biological missiles (monoclonal antibodies + anticancer drugs)
112. Indirect connection core nuclear membrane
Golgi body Endoplasmic reticulum cell membrane
Mitochondrial membrane
Indirect (with membrane vesicles) (endocular and excretion instructions bidirectional)
Secreted proteins: antibodies, protein hormones, extracellular enzymes (digestive enzymes), etc. are secreted outside the cell
Ribosomal endoplasmic reticulum transport processing in coarse endoplasmic reticulum processing Golgi processing mature proteins extracellular
113, biofilm system (not equal to biofilm): cell membranes, nuclear membranes and organelles surrounded by membranes
Ex vivo → nutrients + hormones Suitable temperature + sterility
Plant tissue culture Ex vivo → callus → root buds (germ bodies) → plant bodies
Select virus-free cusp (growth point) comfrey
114. Plant cell engineering Two different → hybrid cells → new plant bodies
Plant somatic cells Remove the cell wall→ protoplasts→ hybrid cells → new plant bodies
There is reproductive isolation between hybrids and there can be no sexual hybridization
Benefits: Overcoming the barrier of heterogeneous heterogeneous incompatibility and cultivating new varieties
It is the basis of other animal cell engineering techniques
Animal cell culture Liquid medium: animal serum
115. Organs or tissues taken from animal embryos or young animals that are not long after birth
Substances are treated with trypsin
Fine Primary culture → subculture (cell line → cell line genetic material changes)
Cell inactivated virus as an inducer + physical and chemical methods
Engineering Animal cell fusion The most important use: the preparation of monoclonal antibodies
Theoretical basis: fluidity of cell membranes
Monoclonal antibody → refers to a single B lymphocyte produced by cloning a cell population with a single chemical properties and strong specificity (advantages: strong specificity, high sensitivity). Each B lymphocyte secretes only one specific antibody (millions in total) * hybrid tumor cells * biological missiles
116 Microbes encompass all living things except the plant and animal kingdoms
Plasmids (small circular DNA) control resistance, nitrogen fixation, and antibiotic production
The nuclear region (macrocyclic DNA) controls the main genetic traits Some bacteria have capsules, spores, and flagella
Carbon source: inorganic/organic carbon source Autotrophic/heterotrophic
117, microbial growth nitrogen source: add no additional nitrogen source
Required Nutrients Growth Factors: (Vitamins, Amino Acids, Bases→ Constituent Enzymes and Nucleic Acids)
water:
Inorganic salt:
Solid medium: isolation, identification, counting
Physical properties Semi-solid medium: kinematic, preservative strains
Liquid medium: industrial production
118, culture medium natural medium: industrial production
Chemical Properties Synthetic Media: Classification Identification
Select the medium Penicillin → select yeast, mold and other fungi
Uses NaCl: Staphylococcus aureus
Identification medium: E. coli → E. coli→ dark purple and metallic luster
Design your own experiments: distinguish between the mixed round brown nitrogen-fixing bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, and E. coli, and screen for pure breeds.
119, microbial metabolism regulation of enzyme synthesis induction enzymes: gene and inducer control
Regulation of enzyme activity Structural changes reversible Fast and accurate
Essential substances that have always produced amino acids, nucleotides, vitamins
Primary metabolites Species-specific polysaccharides, lipids
120, metabolites Non-essential substances, a certain stage of antibiotics, toxins
Secondary metabolites Have specific species of tetracyclines, pigments, hormones
121, microbial population growth curve: 3
2 4
1
(1) Adjustment period: the optimal period for active metabolism and the beginning of synthesis of inducible enzymes for primary metabolite harvesting
(2) Logarithmic period: stable morphological and physiological characteristics, vigorous metabolism; strains for scientific research, the best period of inoculation
(3) Stabilization period: the optimal period for secondary metabolite harvesting, spore production (the most intense intraspecific struggle)
Timely replenishment of nutrients can prolong the stabilization period
(4) Period of decay: multiple forms, malformations, release of secondary metabolites Living environment is harsh
The most intense struggle with inorganic environments is the 4th period of decay.
Nutrient consumption of harmful metabolites accumulation of PH is not suitable leading to the emergence of the 3.4 period.
Note: The first three periods resemble an "S" growth curve, but with more periods of decay
122. Environmental factors affecting the life of microorganisms
PH value: affects the activity of enzymes, the stability of cell membranes, and thus affects the absorption of nutrients by microorganisms
Temperature: Affects the activity of enzymes and proteins
O2 concentration: Methanogenes
123, autoclave sterilization: 1/5, 1/2, 2/3, 75% from the inside to the outside, fine, non-repetitive
After melting, the pH must be adjusted before dispensing
The process of bacterial culture: preparation of medium→ sterilization→ setting aside the slope → inoculation → culture observation
Example: Glutamic acid fermentation (Bacillus yellow, Corynebacter glutamate)
conception:
Strain selection: mutagenesis breeding, genetic engineering, cell engineering
Preparation of medium: composition, proportion, pH appropriate
124, fermentation engineering content sterilization: removal of bacteria
Expand culture and inoculation: Strains are cultured multiple times to reach a certain number
Fermentation process: (central stage) control of various conditions, production of fermentation products
Isolation and purification of bacterial bodies: filtration, precipitation (single-cell proteins, that is, microbial bacteria themselves)
Metabolites: distillation, extraction, ion exchange
Applications Pharmaceutical industry: production of pharmaceuticals and genetically engineered pharmaceuticals
Food industry: traditional fermented products, food additives, single-cell proteins, etc
125, C/N=4/1 Bacteria multiply but produce less glutamic acid (P79)
Remember that C/N = 3/1 bacterial reproduction is inhibited, but the amount of glutamate synthesis increases greatly
Insufficient dissolved oxygen: Produces lactic or succinic acid
pH: Produces acetyl glutamine (P95)
2