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The Fall of the North Sea: Territorial Cession in the Early Qing Dynasty
During the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, the territory of the Qing Dynasty was as vast as the Baikal region in present-day Russia, which was called the "North Sea". This area has a long history, and since the Han Dynasty, yellow nomads have been circulating and grazing here, forming a unique cultural and economic exchange belt. However, by the early Qing Dynasty, as the border dispute between the Qing and Russia heated up, the region, known as the "North Sea," began to reveal its geopolitical importance.
During the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, Russia's eastward expansion intensified, and they eyed the strategic location of the Baikal region. Russian explorers and merchants began to trade and explore across the Baikal region, gradually invading the lands that originally belonged to the Qing Dynasty. In order to protect the security and sovereignty integrity of the frontier, the Qing court strengthened diplomatic negotiations with Russia and tried to resolve territorial disputes through peaceful means.
In many diplomatic negotiations between the Qing and Russia, Qing diplomats found the Russian side to be tough and aggressive, and they were very insistent on the land in the "North Sea" region, intending to force the Qing to make concessions through diplomatic pressure. Although the Qing Dynasty showed a resolute attitude in the negotiations, internal divisions and the lack of military strength gradually became apparent. When dealing with this diplomatic problem, Emperor Yongzheng had to take into account the overall national security and border stability.
Against this backdrop, and with the Qing Dynasty still having to deal with potential threats from the south and internal political and economic problems, Emperor Yongzheng faced a difficult choice. Eventually, after several rounds of intensive negotiations on the Qing-Russian border, the Qing dynasty was forced to make concessions and agreed to cede the "North Sea" region to Russia. Although this decision was made to preserve the broader national security and stability, it also meant that for the first time in history, the Qing Dynasty explicitly gave up its sovereign territory.
The first "seeds of hatred": the bloody repression of the Transbaikal regiments
In 1851, Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, in order to consolidate control over the Baikal region, created the "Transbaikal Regiment" and sent Cossack troops to this strategic location. Cossack units were known for their horsemanship and combat effectiveness, and were historically used by the tsar as a guardian of the frontier and a vanguard of expansion. At that time, the Baikal region was originally inhabited by Buryats and other indigenous peoples, who lived on agriculture and pastoralism and maintained a harmonious coexistence with nature.
After the arrival of the Cossack corps, military bases and defenses were quickly established, and strict control and management of the local area began. Not only did they set up checkpoints, but they also imposed high tolls and taxes, severely oppressing the local population. Over the next decade or so, the Cossacks launched a series of armed repressions and plundering campaigns, which led to the destruction of the local socio-economic structure.
The main means of plunder used by the Cossack troops included the seizure of land, the plundering of livestock and grain, and the forced surrender of their gold and silver treasures by the Buryat people. Unable to bear this oppressive rule and economic burden, the Buryats fled their original settlements, either to more remote mountainous areas, or to traditional nomadic lifestyles and abandonment of farming.
In addition, the Cossacks adopted a scorched earth policy, burning down many Buryats homes and farmland, which almost paralyzed agricultural production in the region. Such extreme military operations and disregard for the rights of the people have seriously undermined the social order and economic foundations of the region. The multi-ethnic areas that were originally relatively peaceful coexistence in the Tang, Yuan, Jin, Liao, and Mongol dynasties have become a frontier of turmoil and misery.
The brutality of the Cossacks was not only material plunder, but was accompanied by cultural and spiritual destruction. They showed great hostility towards the traditional culture and beliefs of Buryatia, destroyed many traditional places of worship and cultural sites, banned the celebration of traditional festivals and the practice of national customs. This cultural oppression exacerbated the discontent and resistance of the local people.
The second "seed of hatred": the clash of cultural cleansing and faith
Under the rule of the Cossacks and the Russian tsars, the cultural landscape of the Baikal region changed significantly. The area was once a multicultural area where Tibetan Buddhism coexisted with indigenous beliefs such as shamanism. However, as the Russian Empire expanded and its grip on the frontier deepened, this cultural diversity was seriously threatened.
The Cossacks and subsequent Russian administrators had an exclusive attitude towards these non-Orthodox religions, especially in religious policy, and pursued a strategy of assimilation aimed at promoting the spread of Orthodox Christianity. This includes the establishment of Orthodox churches, as well as the promotion of the Russian language and culture in education and public life. Tibetan Buddhist monasteries and shamanic places of worship in the Baikal region were gradually restricted, even destroyed and closed. Many of the sites that were originally used for religious ceremonies have been converted into Orthodox facilities or replaced by other government uses.
In the Soviet era, this cultural assimilation and repression intensified. The Soviet government pursued an atheistic policy that was critical and repressive of all forms of religious activity. Minority religions such as shamanism in the Baikal region, which are officially regarded as superstitions and "unacceptable culture," have been almost completely suppressed. The government closed shamanic shrines, banned the traditional activities of shamans, and even arrested and exiled many shamans as anti-social elements.
In addition, the Soviet government tightened its control over education and culture, attempting to eliminate the cultural identity of minorities through schooling and public propaganda. In school education, the teaching of the Russian language was mandatory, and content about local culture and history was compressed or even deleted, while the history and cultural achievements of the Soviet Union were placed at the heart of education. Such policies not only erase the historical memory of ethnic minorities, but also deprive them of the opportunity to pass on their culture.
This repression and assimilation of the originally rich and colorful culture of the Baikal region has exacerbated the contradictions and discontents between the local ethnic groups. Minority groups, especially the Buryats and Tuvans, have felt strong cultural and political pressure from the central government. As a result of the disruption to their traditional beliefs and way of life, many people have begun to secretly restore and maintain their cultural habits, albeit at great risk.
In addition, the government's hardline policy has not only failed to eliminate ethnic contradictions, but has intensified tensions in the region. Over time, these suppressed and ignored cultural differences translate into deep resentment and resistance, planting the seeds of hatred for possible future conflict and unease.
The third "seed of hatred": economic exploitation and resource plundering
With the success of the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the formal establishment of the Soviet Union in 1922, the political and economic life of the Buryatia region underwent drastic changes. Under the Soviet system, the Buryatia-Mongolian Republic, an entity that once enjoyed a certain degree of political autonomy, was redivided and integrated into the federal structure of the Soviet Union, becoming an administrative unit called the "Buryatia Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic".
Previously, the Buryatia region, although under the control of Tsarist Russia, retained to a certain extent the independence of its internal administration. However, the Soviet government's policy of rapid centralization led to a significant erosion of these autonomy rights. The Soviet government's control over the region was largely reflected in its overall control over its natural resources, especially the region's rich mineral resources such as coal, iron ore and precious metals, the exploitation and exploitation of which were strictly integrated into the state's planned economic system.
In terms of economic policy, the economic model of the Buryatia region has been forcibly transformed. The diversification of the economy was refocused on heavy industry and mining, and agriculture was retained, but more as part of the national agricultural program than as the focus of the regional economy. In addition, enterprises and factories in the Buryatia region were included in the national production plan, local government control over the economy was drastically reduced, and all important economic decisions were made by the central government in Moscow.
This top-down approach to economic management has led to a significant amount of economic gains being transferred to the central government within the region. Most of the taxes that the Buryatia region had to pay and the profits from the exploitation of natural resources went to the central government to support the Soviet-wide industrialization and militarization projects. Only a small portion of the revenue is set aside for local infrastructure and social welfare projects, which has caused widespread discontent in the locality.
Local officials and residents feel unfair about this resource-grabbing development strategy. Despite the fact that official propaganda emphasizes that this is a necessary step towards the modernization of the entire Soviet Union, for the Buryats, who live in resource-rich areas, they do not see the direct benefits of this "modernization" to them. On the contrary, environmental destruction, declining quality of life and neglect of national culture have become the main reasons for their dissatisfaction.
Protests, churn and economic stagnation
With the increasing economic exploitation and cultural repression of the Buryatia region during the Soviet era, the problems of social unrest and economic stagnation in the region have become more prominent. The mineral resources of the Buryatia region, especially coal and metals, have long been exploited on a large scale by the central government to support the Soviet Union's industrialization process and military needs, while local communities have rarely benefited from them. In addition, the reform of the collective farm system in the USSR caused damage to traditional animal husbandry, which was one of the main sources of livelihood for the Buryats.
The overexploitation of resources has brought serious environmental problems, and the decline in agricultural and animal husbandry productivity has directly affected the quality of life of local residents. Land degradation, water pollution, and ecological destruction have become the norm, resulting in traditional lifestyles that rely on natural resources as they are no longer sustainable. As a result of these pressures, the Buryatia region began to experience a massive loss of population. Young people, in particular, tend to leave, moving to other Soviet cities, or to metropolises such as Moscow in search of better work and life opportunities, leaving behind mostly the elderly and children, further undermining the region's economic dynamism.
The slowdown in economic activity is multifaceted. Regional economies, which were originally reliant on minerals, agriculture and animal husbandry, have been exporting resources and reducing productivity, leading to a shrinking local market and a decline in industrial output. The lack of sufficient investment and technological renewal makes it difficult for local industries to compete with other regions, and the simplification of the economic structure also makes the local resistance to external changes extremely weak.
Despite ongoing protests and discontent, the Buryatian people were often closely monitored and suppressed by the Soviet government when expressing their dissenting voices. Political rallies and protests are often seen as subversive acts, and participants can face arrest, imprisonment, and worse. This strong political and military pressure has made protests in the region often appear sporadic and ineffective. However, even under pressure, Buryats have indirectly expressed their grievances and protests through cultural preservation and small-scale community activities, such as traditional music, dance and oral histories, to maintain a sense of national identity and cultural continuity.
Moreover, despite the Soviet government's attempts to stabilize the situation through various propaganda and policies, the reality of economic stagnation and social injustice made the government's efforts often counterproductive, increasing the people's distrust of the government's policies.
References:[1]Siqin Menghe. Inner Mongolia Social Sciences(Mongolian Edition),2015,0(4):52-56.)