Summary:
This paper explores the different understandings and theoretical constructions of the philosophy of subjectivity by two giants of phenomenology in 20th-century philosophy, Husserl and Heidegger. Husserl tried to construct a purely conscious realm as the center of intentionality through phenomenological reduction and transcendental self theory, but the theory fell into the dilemma of subject closure, epistemological limitations, and disconnection from the socio-cultural context. Heidegger, on the other hand, criticized this, emphasizing that being precedes essence through the concept of "here and now", placing the self in the practical and historical context of the world, and realizing the transformation from a priori to existentialism.
I. Introduction
Since Descartes, the philosophy of subjectivity has gradually become the core topic of Western philosophical discussion, emphasizing the central position of the rational subject in the process of cognition. The Age of Enlightenment strengthened the authority of reason, on the basis of which Kant established a critical philosophy, distinguishing between phenomena and the self of things, emphasizing the boundaries of reason, but still retaining the dominant role of the subject in epistemology.
Subsequently, Hegel pushed subjectivity to the level of the Absolute Idea, and the subject and object reached a unity in the dialectic of spirit. However, from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, with the progress of science and social changes, the philosophy of subjectivity faced unprecedented challenges, and how to understand the relationship between the subject and the world has become a new direction for philosophers to explore.
2. Husserl's theory of the transcendental self and its dilemma
A. The transcendental self as the "pure pole" of consciousness
Transcendental Reduction and Pure Consciousness: Husserl's phenomenological approach begins with Transcendental Reduction, a thought experiment that aims to suspend (epoché) all natural beliefs about the external world in order to focus attention on the content and structure of consciousness itself. Through this process, Husserl reveals "pure consciousness", that is, consciousness that removes all presuppositions in the physical world, thus providing a "pure" starting point for phenomenological research. Pure consciousness is not an empty abstraction, but an intentional place of activity, the way in which consciousness is directed at the object.
The transcendental self as an intentional subject: In Husserl's theory, the transcendental self is the core of pure consciousness, the subject of intentional action. Intentionality refers to the fact that consciousness always points to something, and it is a relationship between consciousness and objects. The transcendental self is not an individual self in the psychological sense, but a logical construct, a condition for the unity and continuity of all intentional actions. It ensures the internal consistency and coherence of conscious activity and is the basic framework for conscious experience.
The issue of the "secret room of consciousness".
Isolation of the Subject's Closure from the Objective World: Husserl's theory of the transcendental self has been criticized for constructing a kind of "secret chamber of consciousness", that is, an excessive focus on the immanence of pure consciousness, which leads to the isolation between the subject and the external world. This closure ignores the place of the subject in the social, historical, and cultural context, and the role of these factors in shaping the content of consciousness.
The Limitations of Epistemology and the "Cave Ding Canyon": The "Cave Ding Canyon" is a metaphor for the epistemological divide between subject and object. Husserl tried to bridge this gap through the concept of intentionality, but his theory of the transcendental self still struggled to completely solve the problem of how to make a direct transition from subjective consciousness to objective knowledge. This limitation exposes the epistemological difficulty of moving from intrinsic subjectivity to objective validity.
C. The "Robinson Island" metaphor
Isolation of the Self from the Social and Cultural Context: Husserl's theory of the transcendental self has been criticized for being too individualistic and ignoring the embeddedness of the individual in the social and cultural context. This is akin to Robinson's metaphor of the island, in which the self is portrayed as an isolated, detached individual from the social web of relationships, unable to fully reflect the true complexity of human existence.
The Formation and Impact of the "Mennonite Dilemma": The "Mennonite Dilemma" vividly expresses the dilemma of self-understanding, that is, the reflexivity of self-consciousness makes the self both an observer and an observed, leading to an epistemological circular dilemma. Husserl's theory of the transcendental self, while pursuing pure consciousness, also falls into this dilemma, failing to adequately address the question of how the self can be both a subject and an object of knowledge, which limits the application of his theory in explaining sociality, historicity, and cultural relativity.
3. Heidegger's critique of the transcendental self theory
A. Disenchantment: A Questioning of Husserl's Theory of the Transcendental Self
Revelation and Analysis of the "Mennonite Dilemma": Heidegger keenly pointed out the "Mennonite Dilemma" in Husserl's theory of the transcendental self. He analyzes that when the self becomes the identity of the observer and the observed, a fundamental circular logic emerges: how can the self examine itself from a transcendent position and at the same time be the object of scrutiny? Heidegger argues that this infinite regression of self-reflection exposes the limitations of the transcendental self theory, which cannot truly solve the problem of the fundamental position of subjectivity in the process of cognition, nor can it fully grasp the way of human existence.
The Secret Room of Consciousness and the Rupture of Survival Practice: Heidegger critiques Husserl's concept of the "secret room of consciousness", pointing out that this abstraction of consciousness from the living world severs the connection between consciousness and actual survival practice. In daily life, people are not just isolated subjects of consciousness, but are in dynamic interaction with others, the environment, and history and culture. Heidegger emphasized that the analysis of consciousness detached from these actual situations cannot reveal the true meaning of human existence, and thus falls into a rupture between theory and practice.
B. The Epistemological Turn: From the Conscious Subject to the Existential Subject
The proposition that being takes precedence over essence: In response to Husserl's consciousness-centrism, Heidegger put forward the core idea that "being takes precedence over essence". He argues that the first concern should be with "being" itself, i.e. how man exists in the world (In-der-Welt-sein), rather than just with the structure of consciousness. Human existence is not exhaustive by a static definition of essence, but is gradually manifested in the ever-unfolding practice of life. This shift implies a shift in philosophical focus from rational, static epistemological inquiries to dynamic, practical ontological explorations.
Existential Expansion of the Phenomenological Method: In order to overcome the limitations of traditional epistemology, Heidegger extended the existential theory of phenomenology. He is no longer limited to the intuitive description of the content of consciousness, but delves into the inquiry into the way of human existence and its meaning. Heidegger's phenomenology focuses on the "Dasein"—the state of human being, emphasizing the analysis of existential phenomena such as daily life, temporality, death, and anxiety.
This expansion requires us not only to focus on how individuals experience the world, but more importantly to understand one's place in the world and how this position constitutes the possibility of one's self-understanding and action. This turn of Heidegger provides a richer and deeper perspective for understanding human existence, going beyond Husserl's framework of pure consciousness and opening a new chapter in existentialist philosophy.
4. Heidegger's existential view of the self
A. The formulation of the concept of Dasein
The basic structure of being in the world: Heidegger's central concept of "Dasein" refers to human existence, emphasizing that being is always in the "world", that is, in an inseparable relationship with the world, others, and social history. The basic structure of this being includes "being in the world", "being in death", "sinking", and "being in the true state". These structures reveal that human existence is not a static essential attribute, but a dynamic process of life practice, reflecting the richness and complexity of existence.
The Role of Temporality and Historicity in Self-Understanding: Heidegger sees temporality as the key to understanding it. Different from physical time, the temporality of the present is a kind of existential time, including "future", "was" and "present", and these three temporalities together constitute the way of human existence. Temporality allows the being to plan for the future, recall the past, and make decisions in the present, reflecting the historicity of the human being. Temporality is not only the rhythm of individual life, but also the pulse of cultural and social history, providing a deep temporal background for self-understanding.
B. Self-awareness in the world
The social dimension of cosmopolitanity and coexistence: Heidegger's concept of "cosmopolitanity" (Weltlichkeit) states that this being is always embedded in an environment full of meaning, and that the world is not only a material environment, but also a carrier of meaning and value. Mitsein emphasizes the social nature of human beings, who are always present with others, and who form sociality through language, customs, shared history and culture, etc. This social dimension makes the self not only individual, but also mutually constructed, highlighting the role of interpersonal communication in self-understanding.
The Mutual Composition of Practical Activities and Self-Understanding: Heidegger believes that human existence unfolds in practical activities, which are not only the transformation of external things, but also the generation of self-understanding and meaning in the world. Through practical activities such as work, care, and artistic creation, this is constantly relating to the world, and these activities are both means of self-expression and self-understanding. Practical activity and self-understanding condition each other, and together they constitute the way of being.
C. Methodological innovation in existential analysis
Hermeneutical Cycles and Phenomenological Descriptions: Heidegger's existential analysis method innovatively combines hermeneutical cycles with phenomenological descriptions. The hermeneutical cycle means that the process of understanding and interpretation is cyclical, starting with Vorverstehen, and then through in-depth analysis, revision, and deepening of understanding, resulting in a continuous approach to the phenomenon. Phenomenological description, on the other hand, requires starting from the phenomenon itself, suspending all presuppositions, and directly and intuitively describing how the phenomenon presents itself. This combination allows existential analysis to penetrate into the interior of the phenomenon while avoiding subjective assumptions, providing a dynamic methodological basis for understanding the self.
External transcendence of the transcendental self theory: Heidegger's existential analysis goes beyond Husserl's transcendental self theory and frees the self from the immanence of pure consciousness in the broad context of the world, history, society, and practice. Through an existential perspective, the self is no longer an isolated observer, but an active participant in the practice of survival, and the self-understanding is intimately connected to the world, the other, and temporality. This transcendence not only breaks the "secret room of consciousness", but also opens up a new direction of self-theory, emphasizing the philosophical position that existence precedes essence and practice is superior to theory, providing a more comprehensive and in-depth perspective for understanding human existence and self.
5. The philosophical significance and influence of Heidegger's theory of the self
A. Reorientation of the philosophy of subjectivity
The Transition from Epistemic Subject to Being-Subject: Heidegger's theory of the self marks a fundamental change in the concept of subjectivity in Western philosophy. Traditional philosophy, especially modern philosophy, tends to treat the subject as a purely cognitive subject, focusing on how it perceives the external world. Heidegger, on the other hand, shifted his focus to the subject of being, emphasizing that the subject is first and foremost "being in the world", focusing on the way of being and its place in the world, rather than just the perception of the world. This shift has prompted philosophers to re-examine the nature of the human being, placing the experience of survival and practical action at the heart of understanding human existence.
New Perspectives in Philosophical Anthropology: Heidegger's work provides a new theoretical foundation for philosophical anthropology. He no longer explores human characteristics from a biological or psychological point of view, but from an ontological point of view, revealing the structure of human existence and its unique role in the world. This new anthropological perspective emphasizes the historical, cultural, and social nature of human beings, as well as their fundamental relationship with the world, opening up new avenues for understanding the diversity and complexity of human beings.
B. Influence on modern Western philosophy
Impetus to the phenomenological movement: Heidegger not only inherited Husserl's phenomenological method, but also profoundly expanded it and applied it to the field of ontology. His existential approach not only enriches the content of phenomenology, but also pushes the phenomenological movement towards a broader theme and deeper question. Heidegger's philosophy had a profound influence on later phenomenologists such as Merleau-Ponty, Sartre, and others, and promoted the flourishing and development of phenomenology in 20th-century philosophy.
Implications for Postmodern Philosophy: Heidegger's critique of traditional metaphysics, especially the reinterpretation of subjectivity, objectivity, and the concepts of truth, provides important ideological resources for the rise of postmodern philosophy. His profound analysis of language, power, and historicity foreshadows postmodernism's deconstruction of metanarratives and questioning the discourse of authority. Heidegger's reflections have directly or indirectly inspired postmodern thinkers such as Foucault, Derrida, and Lyotard.
C. Implications for ethics and social philosophy
The Relationship between Ethical Responsibility and Being: Heidegger's theory of the self emphasizes the intrinsic connection between ethical behavior and the individual's state of being. True ethical action, he argues, arises from a deep understanding of existence, that is, the choices made in the face of death, temporality, and true state. This view challenges the traditional ethical judgment based on rules or consequences, advocates a sense of ethical responsibility based on existential understanding, and emphasizes the free choice and responsibility of individuals in specific situations.
The relationship between social structure and individual freedom: Although Heidegger is more concerned with individual existence, his ideas also provide clues to understanding the complex interaction between social structure and individual freedom. His discussion of coexistence, cosmopolitanism, and historicity suggests that individual freedom is not abstract and isolated, but is achieved in an interweaving with others, social and historical conditions. This understanding helps us to reflect on the tension between the individual and the collective, freedom and constraint in modern society, and how to build a more just and harmonious social structure while maintaining individual freedom.
VI. Conclusion
Through his critical inheritance of Husserl's theory of the transcendental self, Heidegger achieves a profound shift from a transcendental subject to a living subject. The concept of "here and now" proposed by him in Being and Time not only transcends the isolated transcendental self, but also places human existence in a concrete network of world relations, emphasizing the practicality and temporality of existence in the world. Heidegger's existential self-view liberates subjectivity from the static epistemological framework by revealing the dynamics of existence, endows self-understanding with a broader spatiotemporal and social dimension, and realizes a comprehensive transcendence of Husserl's theory.
Author: Lu Xilin
Bibliography:
Husserl, E. Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology. Translated by W.R. Boyce Gibson. George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Heidegger, M. Being and Time. Translated by J. Macquarrie & E. Robinson. State University of New York Press.
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