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People in ancient Rome had a strong desire for the taste of food and drinks, and were even willing to take some extreme measures to enhance their taste.
One striking example is their fondness for a beverage that contains "toxic lead sugar."
This drink is made from lead with sweetness added to it, which is said to give alcoholic drinks a more attractive flavor.
Over time, however, some scholars began to believe that lead poisoning may have been an important factor in the decline of the Roman Empire.
They believe that the consumption of leaded beverages in large quantities may have led to the poisoning of the Romans, with serious health effects and in turn negative effects on social, economic and political stability.
This article will explore why the Romans loved leaded beverages and whether lead poisoning really played a decisive role in the decline of the Roman Empire.
Master Pliny, Master Kathu and Colummera wrote that by boiling unfermented grape juice, a syrup could be made to concentrate its natural sugars. If the sap is reduced to one-third of the original volume, it is called sapa.
Since the juice is boiled in a pot made of lead alloy, this harmful element seeps into the syrup.
It reacts with acetate ions in grape juice to produce a highly toxic compound, lead acetate. In fact, the amount of lead in SAPA, or "lead sugar," is 200 times higher than today's acceptable levels.
New evidence of high levels of lead in Roman bones
A new study shows that extremely high levels of lead were found in the bones of 30 people who lived in Londinium (present-day London) between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD.
The U.S. Institute for Occupational Health and Safety states that 5 micrograms of lead per deciliter of adult blood indicates that the blood has become toxic — the researchers found an average of 14.4 micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood in the thigh bones they studied.
The findings suggest that in Roman-era London, "more than half of the population" was dealing with problems caused by lead poisoning.
Could it come from metal in their weapons, pipes, or jewelry? Or lead was ingested directly...
Sip the salt of Saturn
Lead acetate is a toxic compound because it contains lead, which has a sweet taste.
In addition to its name, this dangerous compound has gone by other names in the past, including lead sugar and Saturn salt from the ancients, and 18th-century gulal powder.
Although lead acetate is harmful to human health, the ancient Romans widely used it as an artificial sweetener, especially in wine.
The writings of some ancient Roman writers indicate that the Romans were aware of the dangers of lead consumption; But by then, the damage had already been done.
The use of lead sugar as an artificial sweetener by the Romans can be found in the writings of several ancient writers.
Pliny the Elder, Cato the Elder and Crumela, among others, wrote in their articles on Roman agriculture that syrup was made by boiling unfermented grape juice to concentrate its natural sugars.
If the juice is reduced to half of its original volume, it is called defrutum, while the syrup containing one-third of its original volume is called sapa.
Since the juice is boiled in a kettle made of lead alloy, this harmful element seeps into the syrup. By reacting with acetate ions in grape juice, lead acetate is generated.
It may not be lead acetate, but the concentration of glucose and fructose in grape juice that gives the syrup its sweetness. Perhaps it was this compound that gave the syrup an extra sweetness that caught the attention of the Romans.
According to one source, the discovery of lead acetate as a sweetener was purely accidental.
While they were trying to make their products sweeter, Roman winemakers were experimenting with various ingredients and preparation techniques. At some point in time, they try to boil the remaining unfermented grape juice in a lead pan.
When entrepreneurial winemakers noticed that this program produced the sweetest syrup, they decided to start producing the substance in large quantities.
Sugar poisoned with lead
The Romans then found a way to convert lead acetate into crystalline form. This means that toxic substances may be produced as much as table salt or sugar is produced today.
Thanks to this innovation, the consumption of lead acetate became more common, as it also began to be used in cooking.
For example, in Appichus' recipe book, it is calculated that nearly one-fifth of his recipe for sauces is made with lead in the form of syrup.
The high intake of lead meant that the Romans began to suffer from lead poisoning. Some of the symptoms of lead poisoning are vomiting, cognitive difficulties, fatigue, irritability, and loss of appetite.
Some historians even believe that lead poisoning led to the end of the Roman Empire. However, those scholars usually emphasize the role of lead pipes used to transport water in lead poisoning by the Romans.
It seems that the dangers of lead poisoning were finally understood by the Romans. For example, Columera advocates the use of terracotta pipes to transport rainwater, a combination that is said to have the best effect on a person's physical health.
Still, Columella also recommends mixing the wine with lead sugar in the form of syrup to sweeten it.
Vitruvius noted that white lead is extracted from lead, and since the substance is harmful to human health, lead pipes are also dangerous.
Therefore, he also recommended switching to clay pipes. Despite this, the Romans seem to have continued to consume lead, which had a negative impact on their empire in general.
The potential role of lead poisoning in the decline of the Roman Empire
Back in 1983, Canadian research scientist Jerome Niagu examined dietary evidence from 30 Roman emperors and "usurpers" who reigned between 30 BC and 220 AD.
It was concluded that 19 people with "preference for lead contamination" in food and wine were prevalent at the time, possibly suffering from lead poisoning, as well as a type of gout.
We are not talking about small amounts of lead. To sweeten their wine and other foods, the Romans would boil grapes into various syrups.
According to Niagu article in the New England Journal of Medicine, all of these syrups have one thing in common: they simmer slowly in a lead pan or lead - lined with a copper kettle.
When testing formulas in modern times, they produce syrups with a lead concentration of 240 to 1000 mg per liter. "One teaspoon (5 ml) of this syrup is enough to cause chronic lead poisoning," Niagu wrote.
Nyagu believes that given the gluttonous habits of the Roman nobility, it would not be surprising if they showed the effects of lead in their diet.
He described "the dull-minded, absent-minded Claudius" as he believed that Claudius was most likely to suffer from lead poisoning: "He was slurred speech, weak limbs, clumsy gait, trembling, intermittent excessive and inappropriate laughter, and inappropriate behavior angry, and he was often drooling." ”
However, the researchers acknowledge that the causes of these diseases are "long-debated questions."
In fact, his own theory of lead poisoning soon became fiercely controversial.
For example, in 1984, classicist John Scarborough wrote The Myth of Lead Poisoning in the Romans: A Review of a Dissertation and refuted Neliagous's argument.
Scarborough writes that the basic premises of Nyagu cannot be trusted because of the sloppy work. He also concluded that the Romans were aware of the possible harm that lead could cause, that lead poisoning was not widespread in their society, and that Rome did not decline as a result.
In an interview Wednesday, Niagu stuck with his work. Professor Emeritus of Environmental Health Sciences at the University of Michigan said: "Scarborough knew nothing, absolutely nothing, about lead poisoning. Absolutely zero. ”
Still others followed up on the issue. Thirty years after Nyagu's paper was published, a team of archaeologists and scientists studied how lead pipes polluted "tap water" in ancient Rome.
By measuring lead isotopes in sediments from the Tiber River and Harbor, they estimated that tap water could contain 100 times more lead than local springs.
Although the ancient Romans had a certain preference for the poisonous "lead sugar" liquor, it is debatable whether the drink can be directly attributed to the decline of the Roman Empire.
Lead poisoning may have had a significant impact on the health of the Romans, but making it the sole factor in the decline of the Roman Empire seems to oversimplify the complex course of history.
Bibliography:
Francl, MM, 2009。 Sweet clues.
Helmenstine, AM, 2017。 Lead sugar.
Knight, L., 2014. The fatal attraction of lead.
Penelope.uchicago.edu, 2017. Lead poisoning with Rome.
Rhodes, J., 2012。 Lead sugar: A deadly sweetener.
Staughton, J., 2015。 Lead: An ancient (and deadly) artificial sweetener.