Portrait of Cixi
Cixi's credit
In the tenth year of Xianfeng (1860), before the Anglo-French army invaded Beijing, Cixi fled with the Xianfeng Emperor to Rehe Mountain Resort. When the Xianfeng Emperor was about to flee, Cixi tried his best to obstruct and disobey the Xianfeng Emperor's will. After arriving at the summer resort, Sushun took the opportunity to persuade Emperor Xianfeng to kill Cixi like Emperor Wudi of Han gave death to Lady Yi. The Xianfeng Emperor "couldn't bear it" and did not follow his advice. However, Cixi has "greatly reduced its momentum, and everyone dares not make a promise."
On December 2, the eleventh year of Xianfeng (1861), the year name was changed to "Tongzhi", and the Empress Dowager of the Two Palaces was in the palace of the imperial nourishment heart, and the curtain was obeyed. In the early days of her reign, with the assistance of the Emperor Yixuan, she rectified the rule of officials, reused Han Chen, and relied on the armed forces of Han landlords such as Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, and Li Hongzhang.
In order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, she also reused the Westerners, developed some military and civilian industries, and trained the navy and army to strengthen the power of the regime with the principles of "self-improvement" and "seeking prosperity". Objectively, it has played a positive role in China's modernization.
During this period, the domestic uprisings were quelled, the two opium wars temporarily satisfied the greed of the great powers, and there were no major losses in diplomacy, and the military strength of the Qing Dynasty improved after the Western Affairs Movement, and the industry and commerce had initial development, known as "Tongzhi Zhongxing".
From the fourth year of Tongzhi (1865) to the ninth year of Tongzhi (1870), the invaders of the Kokand Khanate in Central Asia, Aqubai, invaded and stole most of Xinjiang; In the tenth year of Tongzhi (1871), Tsarist Russia sent troops to occupy the Ili region. In the first year of Guangxu (1875), Cixi adopted the advice of Zuo Zongtang, the governor of Shaanxi and Gansu, and sent troops to Xinjiang, and the Qing army recaptured Xinjiang in January of the fourth year of Guangxu (1878); In the seventh year of Guangxu (1881), China negotiated that China recovered most of Ili. That year, Japan launched the Sino-Japanese War. Guangxu is the main battle, and Cixi is also the main battle, "no weak words are allowed."
After the defeat of the Sino-Japanese War, the great powers set off a frenzy to divide China. In order to save the law, the bourgeois reformists initiated the reform of the law (historically known as the Reform Law), for which Cixi hoped to strengthen the country but feared that Guangxu would use the law to break out of her control, initially expressed support, but she then took military power and human rights into her own hands.
After the Boshu coup, the Boxer Rebellion arose in northern China, and Cixi initially took charge of suppressing it, but the suppression failed repeatedly, and the Boxer Rebellion developed rapidly and entered Beijing. Cixi hoped to suppress and treat the Boxers differently, but the great powers demanded that the Qing government completely eliminate the Boxers, and insisted on transferring troops to Beijing despite the opposition of the Qing government. Cixi had always been dissatisfied with the foreigners, so he had the idea of using the Boxers against the great powers and declared war on the great powers (without issuing an edict declaring war).
Cixi's decision was opposed by Liu Kunyi, Zhang Zhidong and other local governors, who jointly telegraphed the Qing court to advocate the annihilation of the Boxer Rebellion and concluded treaties with the great powers to implement "mutual protection in the southeast." On the one hand, Cixi asked the provincial generals to supervise the careful arrangement of war and defense matters, and continued to use the Boxers to besiege the embassy and resist the eight-nation coalition army; On the other hand, she ordered Ronglu to go to the embassy to express condolences to the envoys of various countries, and sent letters to the heads of state of Russia, Britain, Japan, Germany, the United States, and France, asking them to come forward to "resolve difficulties and solve disputes" and "save the current situation", and transferred Li Hongzhang, the governor of Liangguang, to be directly subordinate to the governor and minister of Beiyang, preparing to negotiate with the great powers. However, the eight-nation coalition did not stop attacking.
In order to maintain her rule and change her image of old and incompetent, Empress Dowager Cixi announced the implementation of the so-called "New Deal" during the "Western Hunting" period, carrying out economic, military, educational, and official reforms.
In the 30th year of Guangxu (1904), the Russo-Japanese War broke out, and its main battlefield on land was in northeast China, and the Qing government headed by Cixi declared neutrality, and the result of the war was Japan's victory over Tsarist Russia. People in China generally realized that constitutional monarchy was superior to absolute monarchy, and demanded constitutional reform by the Qing government; At the same time, the revolutionary movement in the country was gaining momentum. In order to maintain his rule, Cixi made a gesture of establishing a constitution. In the thirty-first year of Guangxu (1905), five ministers were sent to the sea for investigation, in the thirty-second year of Guangxu (1906), the preparation of the constitution was announced, and in the thirty-fourth year of Guangxu (1908), the "Outline of the King James Constitution" was promulgated, the content of which was modeled on the constitutions of Germany and Japan and maintained the emperor's "great power".
In the thirty-fourth year of Guangxu (1908), due to Cixi's passage of photo diplomacy, US President Theodore Roosevelt signed a bill to refund Gengzi more than 10 million US dollars in reparations, mainly to support Chinese government-sent students studying in the United States; After that, Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands and other countries successively; The total amount of "overflow" refunded by the seven countries to China is about 300 million taels of customs bank, which is quite effective in setting up the educational undertaking and should be affirmed.
In 1903, Empress Dowager Cixi designated peony as the national flower in the form of a decree. The 1915 edition of "Ci Hai" also recorded: "The mainland has taken peony as its national flower."
Cixi's fault
Gu ordered the eight ministers to attempt to dictatorship, and the power-hungry Cixi was very dissatisfied, so he joined forces with the younger brother of the Xianfeng Emperor Gong (奕訢) the Prince of Xianfeng, who was presiding over the peace talks in Beijing, and took advantage of the Empress and the Xianfeng Emperor's Zigong to return to Beijing to launch a Xin You's coup, designed to arrest the eight ministers, sentenced Prince Yi Zaiyuan, Prince Zheng Duanhua to self-discipline, Sushun to make a decision, and others to dismiss. Yi Xun was made the Prince of Parliament.
With the support of the great powers, it successively suppressed the Taiping Rebellion, the Twister Army, and the Miao People, alleviating the crisis of rule of the Qing Dynasty and temporarily stabilizing the Qing Dynasty.
In order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, she also reused the Westerners, developed some military and civilian industries, and trained the navy and army to strengthen the power of the regime with the principles of "self-improvement" and "seeking prosperity". Objectively, it has played a positive role in China's modernization.
In order to enjoy himself, Cixi instructed the Tongzhi Emperor to repair the Old Summer Palace for him to live in, and the Tongzhi Emperor also wanted to take this opportunity to let the Empress Dowager leave the palace to live in order to get rid of Cixi's interference in imperial affairs, but at that time, the financial shortage and the Old Summer Palace were seriously damaged, and the repair cost was very large, and the Tongzhi Emperor insisted on starting construction, which caused many princes and ministers such as Yixun to oppose them, and the Tongzhi Emperor actually dismissed them all. Cixi intervened to stop the Tongzhi Emperor's decision.
In the ninth year of Guangxu (1883), the Sino-French War broke out. The war lasted until the eleventh year of Guangxu (1885), and the two sides won and lost each other militarily, but the Qing government headed by Cixi advocated "taking advantage of the victory and reaping the benefits", and signed the "Sino-French New Treaty" with France, which gave France a lot of aggressive benefits. During this period, on April 8, the tenth year of Guangxu (1884), Cixi launched Jiashen Yishu, and the entire class of ministers of the Military Aircraft Department headed by Prince Gong Yixun was deposed and the dictatorship of the Western Palace began.
In February of the fifteenth year of Guangxu (1889), Guangxu got married, nominally ruled by the Guangxu Emperor, and Cixi trained for several more years. After the end of the training and administration, all the personnel and administration in the dynasty still took their hands, "The empress dowager (Guangxu Emperor) is respectful, and the great government of the imperial court will be ordered to do it." ”
In the 20th year of Guangxu (1894), Prince Jiu took advantage of Cixi's 60th birthday to "receive congratulations in the Summer Palace, imitating the practice of the Kangxi and Qianlong years, from Da Nei to the garden, passing by the road, setting up a color tent prayer altar, and holding celebrations". The navy was funded to repair the Summer Palace, arrange scenic spots, and collect a wide range of contributions. However, when some people proposed to stop the construction of the Summer Palace, stop the scenic spots, and transfer them to military expenses, Cixi was furious, saying that "whoever makes me unhappy today, I will also make him unhappy for life." Later, the Qing army suffered successive defeats on the Korean battlefield, and the Beiyang Naval Division suffered serious setbacks in the Battle of the Yellow Sea. In order not to affect his June celebration, Cixi hoped that foreign countries would intervene and end the war as soon as possible. She supported Li Hongzhang's policy of avoiding war and seeking peace, and used various excuses to attack the main war faction headed by Guangxu.
Due to the increasing tensions, Cixi was forced to scale back the scale of her birthday celebrations in the face of pressure from the government and the public. With the fall of Jinzhou and Dalian one after another, and Lushun in great danger, Cixi spent her 60th birthday at the Ningshou Palace in the Forbidden City.
On February 7, the 21st year of Guangxu (1895), Weihai Weihai Weiri ships and batteries attacked Liugong Island, and the Beiyang Naval Division was completely destroyed. China suffered defeat on both land and sea, and the main peace faction headed by Cixi was determined to make peace with Japan. In March, Cixi sent Li Hongzhang as minister plenipotentiary to Japan to beg for peace. On April 17, the Treaty of Shimonoseki, an unprecedented humiliating treaty in Chinese history, was signed, in which China renounced its suzerainty status over Korea, paid 200 million taels of silver, ceded the Liaodong Peninsula (under the intervention of Russia, Germany, France and other Western powers, and later redeemed for 30 million taels of silver), Taiwan, and the Penghu Islands, opened four trade ports, and allowed Japan to open mines and set up factories at trade ports.
After the defeat of the Sino-Japanese War, the great powers set off a frenzy to divide China. In order to save the law, the bourgeois reformists initiated the reform of the law (historically known as the Reform Law), for which Cixi hoped to strengthen the country but feared that Guangxu would use the law to break out of her control, initially expressed support, but she then took military power and human rights into her own hands.
June of the twenty-fourth year of Guangxu (1898). The Guangxu Emperor issued an edict "Ming Ding Guo Is" (that is, "Ming Ding Guo is an Edict") and implemented the law change. The Guangxu Emperor's change of law touched the interests of the old Manchurian aristocracy and many feudal bureaucrats, who gathered and vigorously opposed the change of law. When they heard that the Guangxu Emperor had attempted to have Yuan Shikai send troops to besiege the garden and kill Ronglu, Cixi and others staged a coup d'état, detained the Guangxu Emperor, and executed Tan Si and six others.
Cixi's decision was opposed by Liu Kunyi, Zhang Zhidong and other local governors, who jointly telegraphed the Qing court to advocate the annihilation of the Boxer Rebellion and concluded treaties with the great powers to implement "mutual protection in the southeast." On the one hand, Cixi asked the provincial generals to supervise the careful arrangement of war and defense matters, and continued to use the Boxers to besiege the embassy and resist the eight-nation coalition army; On the other hand, she ordered Ronglu to go to the embassy to express condolences to the envoys of various countries, and sent letters to the heads of state of Russia, Britain, Japan, Germany, the United States, and France, asking them to come forward to "resolve difficulties and solve disputes" and "save the current situation", and transferred Li Hongzhang, the governor of Liangguang, to be directly subordinate to the governor and minister of Beiyang, preparing to negotiate with the great powers. However, the eight-nation coalition did not stop attacking.
On August 14, the 26th year of Guangxu (1900), the eight-nation coalition army invaded Beijing; In the early morning of the next day, attacking the Donghua Gate of the Forbidden City, Cixi fled to Xi'an with the Guangxu Emperor, Empress, and others, making Yixi and Li Hongzhang plenipotentiary ministers, negotiating with the great powers, putting the responsibility for the war on the Boxers, and ordering the Boxers to be "painfully eradicated." On February 14, the 27th year of Guangxu (1901), he approved the "Outline of Peace Discussion" and issued an edict, stating that he would "measure the material resources of China and make the country happy." "On September 7 of the same year, the Xinxiu Treaty was signed with 11 imperialist countries, stipulating that 450 million taels of silver should be paid according to the amount of Chinese at that time, 980 million taels of silver within 39 years, punishment of the main war officials, and the dismantling of all artillery batteries along the route from Dagu to Beijing. On October 6 of the same year, Cixi sent tens of thousands of people and 3,000 luggage carts from Xi'an, leaving Tongguan through Henan and Zhizhi, lasting three months, and returned to Beijing on January 8, the 28th year of Guangxu (1902).
At this time, the rule of the Qing Dynasty was already in turmoil, and Cixi was "exhausted in every way to be taken care of." In the summer of the thirty-fourth year of Guangxu (1908), she "sometimes felt unwell" and by September she developed diarrhea. On the tenth day of October, she celebrated her seventy-fourth birthday in Xiyuan. Due to the celebration and the excessive number of activities, his condition continued to develop. On the 14th, there was a "headache and tiredness,...... Irritability, thirst, dry tongue, cough, sometimes chills and fever" and other symptoms. The next day, he was "in pain all over his body and his face was floating." On the 21st (November 14), the Guangxu Emperor died in the Hanyuan Hall of Yingtai. The Daxing Emperor had no heirs, and in order to continue to hold the power of the imperial government, Cixi made Pu Yi, the son of the Guangxu Emperor's half-brother Zaifeng the Prince of Alcohol, and Pu Yi, who was only 3 years old, as the heir to the throne, and the year name Xuantong succeeded the Tongzhi Emperor and the Guangxu Emperor, and Cixi was honored as the empress dowager, modeled on the story of the Shunzhi Dynasty, and appointed Zaifeng as the regent. However, all military affairs and political affairs must adhere to Cixi's "instructions" and "implement discretion." However, just before the third hour of the next day (around 2 p.m. on November 15, 1908), Cixi died of illness at the Yiluan Hall in Zhongnanhai, Beijing, at the age of 74, only one day after Guangxu's death. Cixi's last words said: "After that, women must not hear about national affairs. This is contrary to the family law of this dynasty and must be strictly restricted. In particular, it is necessary to guard against the eunuchs' unauthorized power. The events of the end of the Ming Dynasty can be a lesson for Yin!