An analysis of khitan cremation tombs

Cremation is one of the earliest Khitan burial customs recorded in the literature, which has been found from before the founding of the Liao Dynasty to the late Liao Dynasty, concentrated in the pre-Liao and early Liao Dynasties, influenced by the livelihood methods, religious beliefs and customs of the Khitan people, and is one of the manifestations of their funerary concepts and burial systems. As a funerary form throughout the Liao Dynasty, cremation showed different characteristics at different stages. Through a comprehensive review of archaeological materials and combined with historical documents, the origin, grouping, decline and reasons behind the Khitan cremation tombs are preliminarily discussed.

The Khitan were a nomadic people of the ancient north of the mainland, developed from the Eastern Hu clan, active in the chinese historical arena during the Northern Wei Dynasty, and established the Liao Dynasty by Yelü Abaoji in the early 10th century. The Liao Dynasty occupies a very important position in the historical development process of Northeast Asia, and its politics, economy, and culture have had an important impact on the vast northern region of Eurasia, so that there are still countries that use "Khitan" as a pronoun to China.

Tombs have always been the focus and hotspot of Liao Dynasty history and archaeological research, at present, the total number of Liao tombs found in the country has exceeded 1,000, concentrated in Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, Beijing, Hebei and northern Shanxi, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Tianjin also have sporadic discoveries. The Territory of the Liao Dynasty was vast, the population structure was complex, and its burial customs and burial system also showed the characteristics of group, complexity and diversity. Cremation is one of the earliest Khitan burial customs seen in the literature, and it is a direct reflection of the Khitan people's ideological concepts and burial system, which needs to be further sorted out and analyzed.

I. Definition and Discovery of Khitan Cremation Tombs

Judging from the published archaeological materials, corpse and bone burial was the mainstream of Liao Dynasty tombs, followed by cremation. Cremation refers to the burial of burned ashes in a grave. As an important type of tomb in the Liao Dynasty, cremation tombs were found throughout the Liao Dynasty, with a total of more than 100 tombs, showing a gradual increase from morning to night.

In terms of form of expression, Liao tombs can be roughly divided into two categories: Khitan tombs and Han tombs. For example, Xu Pingfang believes that the Liao tomb is "the tomb of the Khitan and Han tribes found in the territory of the Liao Dynasty from the time the Liao Taizu Yelü Abaoji was proclaimed emperor (907) to the fifth year of the Tianzuo Emperor Baoda (1125) until the death of the Liao Emperor Baoda in 1125".[1] Previous studies have paid much attention to the issue of the ethnicity of Liao tombs, and many useful discussions have been made on the differences and connections between Khitan and Han tombs. The Khitan cremation tombs mentioned in this article refer to the cremation tombs that have been excavated by archaeology and clearly belonged to the Khitan people before and during the liao dynasty, and do not include a large number of Han chinese cremation tombs found in the territory of the Liao Dynasty.

Judging from the published materials, there is no obvious difference in the shape of khitan and Han tombs, but due to differences in ethnic habits, lifestyles and religious ideas, the differences between the two are obvious in the burial style and burial varieties and combinations, especially the latter has become the key evidence for judging the genus of the tomb owner. The Khitan people mostly use large-mouth pots, melon pots, long-necked pots, chicken crown pots, tiliang pots, chicken leg altars, phoenix bottles and other typical Khitan ceramics to be buried, and grate dot patterns are the most common type of ornamentation (Figure 1). In the early days, birch bark, sheep bones, horse bones, harnesses, weapons and other relics with distinct nomadic characteristics can also be seen. Cypress parapets, masks, metal networks, etc. were also basically used by the Khitans. The Han people generally buried with groups of ceramic utensils, including pots, pots, kettles, dings, pots, etc. There are also obvious differences between the two in terms of the use of burial utensils and the content of murals. Although there are also a small number of Han Chinese buried with Khitan artifacts, the owners of the tombs are mostly Khitan Officials of Han Chinese, and many epitaphs have been found, such as the tomb of Han Xiang[2] and the tomb of the Geng family[3]. In the absence of an epitaph excavation, it has become a common practice and general consensus to judge the genus of the owner of the tomb by means of burial system, burial utensils and burial items.

According to the above-mentioned judgment criteria, the Khitan crematorium tombs can be clearly judged at present, including Wusitu[4] and Bandudian in Tongliao City[5], Hutu Road in Bahrain Right Banner[6], Baoquan Village in Bahrain Left Banner[7], Shuangjinggou [8], Company Tun [9], Baitazi [10] in Ao Han Banner, M1 [11] on Qaraqin Banner, Ten Rooms [12], Liujia Courtyard M10[13] in Linxi County, M4 and M10[14] in Chayouqian Banner, M7[15] in Shuanglonggang, and M1 in Liutiaogou in Beipiao City [16], Maliantun Tomb, Haizhou Township Tomb, Houjiumen Tomb, Mud Mawo fort Tomb[17], Jianchang County Guishan No. 1 Tomb[18], Jinxi County Xigushan [19], Zhangwu County Chenggou [20], etc. It should be noted that at the beginning of the discovery of the Semi-Cut Shop cemetery, it was identified as a Han cremation tomb group, but from its burial method and excavated pottery, it showed great similarity with the Shuangjinggou cemetery, and no similar Han cremation tomb was found, which should be a Khitan cremation tomb; A Khitan small-character epitaph was unearthed in Xigushan Mountain, and the owner of the tomb was Xiao Xiaozhong, a Nobleman of the Xi people. Historical records record that the Xi people and the Khitan people are "of the same kind", the economic production methods, ethnic habits and living customs of the two are extremely similar, and the characteristics of tomb performance are also "almost identical", so this article also includes them in the Khitan cremation tombs.

Ii. The grouping and characteristics of Khitan cremation tombs

Among the Liao Dynasty tombs with a total of more than a thousand, the Proportion of Khitan cremation tombs is very small, far less than that of corpse and bone burials and Han Cremation tombs, but it is an important window to understand the life and concepts of the Khitan people. According to the age, shape and identity level of the tomb owner, the Khitan cremation tombs can be divided into the following five groups.

The first group: The Tomb of Ustu and the Tomb of Tiger Toulu. All are earthen pit vertical cave tombs, no burial tools, and typical Khitan pottery such as large-mouth jars, long-necked pots, and melon pots can be seen with burial items, which are similar to the discoveries of Uzhigen Tara[21], Dai Chin Tara [22], Lotus Hada [23], etc., and should be dating before the founding of the Liao State, about the middle and late Tang Dynasty. In addition to the burial pottery, the Tomb of HuTulu also unearthed copper bells, gold earrings, etc., indicating that the identity of the tomb owner is slightly higher.

The second group: Shuangjinggou, Company Tun, Baoquan Village, Haoyaoying M10, Banjiedian, Shuanglonggang M7, Maliantun M1 East Side Tomb, Haizhou Township M3 North Side Tomb, Houjiumen Tomb, Mud Mawo Fort Tomb. All are earthen pit vertical cave tombs, using clay pots to bury the ashes, and the mouth of the jar is covered with stones, pottery bowls, clay pots, porcelain bowls, etc. The cemetery contains many tombs and a long duration, dating back to before and after the founding of the Liao Dynasty and as late as the late Liao Dynasty. The identity of the tomb owner is low, it should be a Khitan civilian tomb, and there are very few burial items, only bone combs, sheep spacers, copper coins, etc.

Group III: Wicker Groove M1. Small brick cremation tombs, using wooden boxes to contain burial ashes, buried with large-mouth jars, drum belly jars, etc. are similar to the similar instruments found in Wusitu and Huswan, but the age is slightly later, about the founding of the Liao Dynasty. The identity of the tomb owner is similar to that of the tomb of Ustu.

The fourth group: Liu Family Compound M10, Shangyao Pot M1. Both are single-chamber tombs with short burial passages, the former tomb is stone-built square, and the latter is brick-built circular. All are joint burial tombs, one person's bones are buried, and one person is cremated. The M10 of the Liu Family Compound is similar to the tomb of Shuanglonggang of the Right Middle Banner of the Branch and the Right Banner of Balin Wuzhu Rishan[24], but there are wooden rafters inside, which should be later than the latter two; A simple imitation wooden bucket arch was found in the M1 of the pot, and the rectangular ear niches on both sides of the tomb may be the original form of the ear chamber of the middle and late Liao tombs, showing the characteristics of the transition from the early Liao to the middle period, the era should be the early Liao, and the latest can be the early stage of the middle period. The chicken crown pot and saddle bridge buried in the M1 also have the characteristics of the early Liao Dynasty.

Group 5: White Pagoda Tomb, West Lonely Mountain Tomb, Haoyao Camp M4, Guishan No. 1 Tomb. The structure of the tomb is complex, and the identity of the owner of the tomb is of a high level. The Tomb of Xigushan is the only cremation tomb of the Year, and the owner of the tomb, Xiao Xiaozhong, was a Xi nobleman, and the official zhi Jing'an Jiedushi was buried in the fifth year of Da'an (1089). The White Pagoda, Guishan No. 1 Tomb and the Haoyaoying M4 are all polygonal burial chambers, and the White Pagoda Tomb has also unearthed copper masks commonly used by nobles in the middle and late Liao Dynasty. According to the scripture building above the Baitazi Tomb and the copper coins excavated from the Guishan No. 1 Tomb, both are from the late Liao Dynasty. There are more porcelain in the burials, and the M4 of the Haoying Camp has also found lacquerware residues.

Through the above grouping, it can be seen that the Khitan cremation tombs have the following characteristics.

1. The total number is not much, but it has been found before the founding of the Liao Dynasty to the late Liao Dynasty, focusing on the pre-Liao dynasty to the early Liao. It is concentrated in the Shangjingdao region in southeastern Inner Mongolia, which has always been the main area of khitan activity.

2. Judging from the identity level of the tomb owner, there are both Khitan commoners and nobles of higher rank, and the former accounts for the majority. From the perspective of the development stage, before the founding of the Liao Dynasty and the early Liao Dynasty, most of them were earthen pit vertical cave tombs, such as the earliest Wusitu tomb and Hutu Road tomb, and the subsequent tombs of Shuangjinggou, Banjiedian, Maliantun and Haizhou Township were also tombs with earth pit vertical caves. In the early Liao Dynasty, brick and stone single-chamber tombs also began to appear, and polygonal burial chambers appeared in the middle and late period and gradually became popular (Figure 2). The tomb structure corresponds to the identity level of the tomb owner, such as the Guishan No. 1 Tomb and the Xigushan Tomb are multi-chamber tombs with tomb passages and Yongdao, with complex structures and high status levels of tomb owners.

3. Burial utensils have obvious Khitan styles, such as early large-mouth pots, melon pots, chicken crown pots, late masks, copper wire networks and Liao porcelain. The customs of covering the ashes with birch bark and placing pitch bones in urns show a very distinct nomadic style and the characteristics of early Khitan tombs.

4. From the use of burial tools, the early Wusitu and Hutulu did not see clear burial tools, the theft of the West Gushan Tomb is unknown, the Wicker Ditch M1 uses wooden letters, the Liu family compound M10 is wooden rafters, the Haoyao Camp M4 is a sarcophagus, the White Pagoda Tomb may have a corpse bed, and the rest use ceramic urns, and nearly 100 pieces were found, which is the largest number of burial utensils found. Among them, the drum belly tank is the most common, accounting for the majority, in addition, there are double series tanks, drum-shaped tanks and so on. According to its morning and evening and shape changes, it can be divided into A, B, C, D, E five types (Figure 3). There are also a number of drilling holes in the body of the columbarium excavated from Shuangjinggou and Company Tun, and the phenomenon of drilling holes in late columbariums is almost absent.

5. Popular family burials, divided into two types: multi-person burial and double burial. The latter is found in the M1 of the Shangyao Pot and the M10 of the Liu Family Compound, where one person is buried with the bones of one person and one person is cremated. The former is more found, often in the same location or in the same tomb found a number of urns, some cemeteries for the bones and cremation of the tomb coexist, and not far apart, the age is also relatively close, such as Kangping Maliantun Township, Haizhou Township and other places found khitan tombs. Bones and cremation coexist in the same cemetery or tomb, or have different concepts, or have uneven wealth, which needs to be explained by more discoveries and studies. It is worth noting that the identity level of the owner of the tomb in different periods in the same cemetery sometimes varies greatly, and it may be possible to glimpse the history of the rise and fall of the family from it. For example, the early tombs in the cemetery of Haoyaoying M4 are simple pit cremation tombs; The medium-term M3 is larger, with a tomb passage and a wooden structure in the burial chamber, indicating that the tomb owner already has a certain status; By the late M6, the owner of the tomb wore a gilded copper mask on his face and a copper wire network on his whole body, and his identity level was obviously extraordinary.

Third, the appearance and reasons for the Khitan cremation tomb

As a relatively special method of handling and burial of corpses, cremation has long been popular among nomadic peoples in northern China, and has been found in the cultural remains of the Xianbei, Turkic, Jingju-Bohai, Khitan, Xi and Jurchen ethnic groups. The "Sui Shu Khitan Biography" records: "Those who weep when their parents die and weep, think that they are not strong, but place their corpses on a mountain tree, and after three years, they collect their bones and burn them." [25] The Northern History of khitan records similarity to the above. It can be seen that after the death of the Khitan people, the first use of tree burial, or heavenly burial, placed the body of the deceased on a large tree in the mountain, and three years later collected and cremated his remains. Wang Yun of the Yuan Dynasty called cremation a "Khitan legacy", which shows that the view of "cremation after the death of the Khitans" has a long history and is quite influential.

The reasons for the Khitans' use of cremation are manifold. From the perspective of ethnic origin, the Khitan and Kumoxi ethnic groups are of the same origin, mainly from the "remnants" of the Xianbei Yuwen tribe, which were the Xianbei tribes that migrated east from the vicinity of the Yin Mountains to Raoleshui and the Tu river valley after the 1st century AD.[26] Available archaeological material also suggests that the cultural traditions of the early Khitans continued the development of the previous Xianbei culture. There is no record of Yuwen Xianbei's burial customs in the literature, but a number of Xianbei cemeteries have been found in Inner Mongolia, some of which have been identified as remnants of Yuwenbu, such as Erlanhugou [28] in Chayouhouqi and Shijiagou[29] in Zhuozi County, the latter of which was found to have burned bones. A piece of clay clay urn excavated in the M2 of the semi-truncated shop, the body is shorter, the mouth, the round lip, the neck, the shallow abdomen, the flat bottom, which are quite different from other Liao Dynasty similar instruments that have been found, and similar to the 1 piece of clay clay pot shaped system excavated from Shijiagou, only the mouth edge is more different, the former is a roll edge, the latter is a flat edge. It can be seen that the Khitan practice of cremation of bones after tree burial may have originated from the cremation customs of the direct ancestors, the Xianbei Yuwen Department, and may have also been influenced by the customs of the Xiongnu, Wuhuan and Xianbei burning coffins and relics of the deceased.[30]

From the perspective of primitive religious beliefs, the Khitans "did not place a tomb" after death, and placed their bodies on trees, which was obviously influenced by their traditional belief, shamanism, the worship of Nakayamakawa. Shamanism began in the era of primitive society fishing and hunting economy, the core is animism, believers believe that it can cure people and eliminate disasters, has a strong practicality and function. Shamanism is almost a primitive form of religion common to all the peoples of the northern part of the continent, and before the introduction of foreign beliefs, its influence among the ancient peoples was deeply rooted. Apaoji claimed that in the process of establishing the emperor's country, he cooperated with the Khitan witch Sugu and easily deceived the trust of the tribal people by creating theological public opinion, illustrating the extent to which the Khitans had this primitive religious belief at that time. The cremation of the remains after the Burial of the Khitan Tree was influenced to some extent by shamanistic concepts, which were related to their worship of the Sun and the fire. There are generally drill holes in the columbariums excavated from cemeteries such as Shuangjinggou, Company Tun, and Maliantun, which are also related to the concept of animism and immortality in shamanism, and the holes in the urns are drilled to facilitate the ascension of the soul. The prevalence of shamanism is a reflection of the nomadic and hunting economic life of the Khitan people at that time, and the Khitan people prayed "so that I have more pigs and deer" when burning bones, proving that they believed that cremation could bless their hunting success and get more prey, which was a visual reflection of the early Khitan hunting and nomadic way of life.

Judging from the current archaeological findings, cremation is mainly popular among Khitan civilians, and it is common to see joint burials and family burials, and there are often several or even dozens of urns buried in the same tomb. For example, a total of 29 pieces of urns were unearthed from the M2 of the semi-cut shop, and the urns in M1 and M3 were also more than 20 pieces. Judging from the different depths of burial depth of the urns, it is obvious that the tomb was not buried at the same time, but the tomb was reopened many times for joint burial or relocation, and the burial age continued from the early Liao to the late Liao. On the one hand, it shows that the Khitan people have a deeper concept of family affection, and people of the same family choose to be buried in the same place after death. On the other hand, compared with a series of processes such as building tombs, preparing burial tools and opening tombs for burial, for Khitan civilians with lower social status and less wealth, cremation occupies less land, costs less, and is easier to relocate and bury together. Although a small number of nobles also used cremation, such as the Guishan No. 1 Tomb, the White Pagoda Tomb and the Xigushan Tomb, not only the burial chamber structure was complex, but also high-specification burial tools such as cypress parapets, copper masks and copper wire networks were found. However, according to Liu Wei's research and division of khitan noble tombs, the tomb owners of the above three tombs belong to the third to fifth ranks of the nobility, with a lower rank,[32] and there is no use of cremation by high nobles and royalty.

By the middle and late Liao Dynasty, the Khitan cremation customs, such as the discovery of the Liu Family Compound, the White Pagoda, the West Gushan Mountain, and the Haoyao Camp, may have been a continuation of the inherent cremation concept of their own people, but more often caused by the influence of Buddhism. In the fifth year (1089) of Emperor Daozong Da'an's "Record of the Confession of the Elder Tomb Pagoda of the Heavenly Kai Temple on the Six Peaks of The Mountain", it is recorded: "The ancient burial man Fu Feng Shu, worried about his sadness, if he buries the crepe and the like, he wants the people to see it." In later generations, Pu San, transferred to Jia HuWen, then there was a system of noble and lowly hills and thick thickness. And Buddhism, and the way of finally returning to perfection, all from cremation. [33] The M8 of the Liu Family Compound unearthed a tiliang-style chicken crown pot, which is decorated with a double-headed Kalinga (a sacred bird in Buddhism) on both sides of the abdomen. The decoration of Buddhist patterns on the cockscomb pots with the most ethnic characteristics indicates that Buddhism already had considerable influence among the Khitan population at that time. However, it should be noted that the influence of Buddhism on the burial customs of the Khitan people is far less than its influence on the Han people, and the tombs of the Han people in the middle and late Liao Dynasty, regardless of their status, the vast majority of them use cremation, which is the manifestation of this profound influence.

Fourth, the popularity of burial and bone burial and the change of Khitan funeral concepts

The Khitan cremation mentioned above actually refers to the burial of the remains after cremation. The early Khitans were influenced by traditional beliefs to practice cremation after tree burial, but the treatment of ashes after cremation is not clearly recorded in the literature. Judging from the discoveries of Wusitu, Hutulu and Shuangjinggou, the Khitans used cremation and burial before the founding of the Liao State, dating back to the middle of the Tang Dynasty. Regarding the reasons why the Khitans chose earth burial, Bi Deguang believes that it is the result of the influence of the Turks to "burn the body immediately and bury it with ashes", which may also be one of the reasons why the Khitan people abandoned the original burial form of tree burial and cremation and chose cremation and earth burial. Through the analysis of tombs such as Xi'uzur[34] and Kangyur flower[35], he believes that the burial system of Murong Wei was already formed at that time, and the Murong Wei people had changed from tree burial to earth burial before the middle of the Tang Dynasty. Judging from the funerary artifacts, the West Uyur and Kangyur flower tombs contain many Khitan cultural factors, which were influenced by the early Khitan tombs, so the Khitan burial customs also arose before the middle of the Tang Dynasty, around the time of the Sui to the early Tang Dynasty.

The above discussion is quite enlightening, but it is still debatable. Through the literature and archaeology, it was found that the Xiongnu, Wuhuan, Turkic, Uighur and other ethnic groups before the Khitan all used earth burial, and the Xianbei people who were the source of the Khitan tribe also used earth burial. At the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the Turks destroyed the Ruoran Khanate and became the hegemon of the Mongolian plateau. The Khitan was ruled by the Turkic Khaganate for a long time, and cultural practices, including burial customs, may have been influenced by it, but according to this, the Khitan burials originated in the Turks, and the evidence is slightly insufficient. Several Khitan and Xi noble tombs from the Tang Dynasty have been found in Shaanxi and Beijing, such as the tomb of Li Guozhi[37], the tomb of Li Guiguo[38] and the tomb of Rehu[39], all of which are brick chamber tombs, and the earliest tomb of the hot tomb is buried in the eighteenth year of the New Century (730). This suggests that the Khitan and Xi people of TangDi had been using brick chamber tombs since at least the early 8th century, possibly as a result of Han influence. The Burial Sites of Si Uyur and Kangyur Flower do exhibit obvious Khitan factors, but the similarity of burial artifacts cannot lead to the conclusion that other burial customs were also influenced by the Khitans. Therefore, whether the Motivation of the Khitan people to choose burial is to follow the customs of various ethnic groups before, or to be influenced by the ideas of the Han People, or to enter a new stage of their own development, it is not easy to determine at present. As for the time when the Khitan people began to use earth burials, judging from the existing archaeological materials, it can only be tentatively set before the middle of the Tang Dynasty, and more archaeological discoveries need to better answer this question in the future. But there is no doubt that the Khitan people abandoned the original custom of cremation after tree burial and built a burial chamber for earth burial after cremation, which is undoubtedly a major transformation and development of the Khitan funeral system, which may have undergone a long process.

At present, the earliest Khitan tombs found include bone burial and cremation, the former accounted for the vast majority, such as Uzhigen Tara, Heye Hada, Husswan [40], Tabu Ao Bao[41], etc., it can be seen that bone burial was popular before the founding of the Liao Dynasty. In fact, from before the founding of the People's Republic of China to the fall of the Liao Dynasty, corpse and bone burials have always occupied a major position in Khitan funerals. Cremation was concentrated before the founding of the Liao Dynasty and the early Liao Dynasty, and concentrated on the commoner class, although a large number of cremation tombs were found in the middle and late periods, most of them were used by Han Chinese influenced by Buddhist thought. Since the founding of the Liao Dynasty, with the development of society, the Khitan people's cremation customs have gradually declined, and corpse and bone burial has become increasingly popular, especially the upper echelons of society have generally implemented bone burial, and accepted the legacy of the Tang Dynasty and the influence of the Han people, and built a house-like tomb. In the early Days, most of the Khitan tombs were simple earthen pit vertical tombs, and the early Liao dynasty earthen pit tombs still occupied a certain proportion, but brick chamber tombs and stone chamber tombs have become a new fashion. The No. 1 Tomb of Baoshan in Arukorqin Banner is a large brick chamber tomb with a wooden structure on the top of the mountain,[42] which is a typical Han tomb shape. The tomb has an inscription "Tianzan Ii Year", which can be known to be buried in the second year (923) of the Liao Taizu Tianzan, indicating that in the early Liao Dynasty, some Khitan nobles used the brick chamber tombs of imitation wooden buildings popular by the Han people. By the middle of the Liao Dynasty, brick chamber tombs became the mainstream, and a small number of stone chamber tombs, earth pit vertical cave tombs were basically missing. The burial chambers of the early Khitan brick chamber tombs were mostly square or circular, and in the middle period, polygonal tombs, such as hexagonal and octagonal, late polygonal tombs became the mainstream. This evolution trend of the burial chamber plane is consistent with the evolution trend of the five northern Song tombs in the Central Plains[43], which should be influenced by Han burial customs.

Behind the changes in funeral customs and tomb forms, on the one hand, is the reality of the continuous social and economic development of the Khitan Liao Dynasty, and on the other hand, the continuous study of Han culture and Confucianism by the Khitan ruling class in order to seek orthodoxy. From tree burial, cremation to bone burial, it reflects a process of continuous social and economic development of the Khitan and the gradual change of funerary concepts. Tree burial and cremation are vivid reflections of the khitan people's early nomadic economic life and primitive shamanism, and the concept of funerary burial may not have been fully formed, while the corpse burial and house-like tombs are a direct reflection of the formation and continuous development of the Khitan people's funeral concept. Before the founding of the Khitan people, they began to learn the ideas and culture of the Han people, and this process began at the top of society represented by Yelü Abaoji, "upward and downward effect". From the early Liao Dynasty onwards, the Khitan nobles mostly used burial chambers similar to those of the Tang and Five Dynasties periods for bone burial. Judging from the excavation of Qingling, its underground palace is also imitated from the tang tomb's underground palace system. At present, all the Khitan noble tombs found, almost all of them have been built to implement the burial of bones.

Yuan "Qiu Jian Ji" volume 84 "On the Funeral Rites of zhongdu" Yun: "Stealing only the great event of sending the son of a dead man." Imami Nakato's customs are weak and evil, and there are those who are anxious to correct them in the funeral ceremony. For example, the funeral of parents, for example, is burned to take for granted, and it is customary to become a custom, to be indifferent to pain, and to be hurt by vulgarity, especially in this regard. The deed survey is a Khitan legacy, which is in the Han People, and it is absolutely impossible to discipline, and it is forbidden to be thick and thin. [44] The Records of paintings record: "At the end of the Yuan Dynasty, Empress Xuanren Shenglie was a guest. The Liao people sent envoys to hang sacrifices. The Liao envoy returned to Huazhou to die, and cut its center to the inside hole of the head. Plant its feet. He also took hundreds of leaves and draped them all over his body to make a hub car to make it. In the spring of the following year, Yu was sent to thank him for entering the house, and his rut was more than a foot deep, and the nobles of this country were also honored, and the untouchables burned back, and the Yerushalayim was still alive. [45] It can be seen that with the deepening of the absorption of Confucianism, in the eyes of the Khitan nobility, the cremation of "burnt to return" was the work of "untouchables", which was not only contrary to the social ethics of the time, but also a typical example of "no pain, no vulgarity". This shows that the upper echelons of society at that time had fully accepted the burial of corpses and bones, and the Khitan burial customs underwent a comprehensive change in tree burial, cremation and bone burial.

5. Conclusion

Tombs are an intuitive reflection of the socio-economic conditions and ideological concepts of the ancients, and the Khitan people buried trees first and then cremated, indicating that the custom of building tombs and burying was not yet formed at that time, which was a reflection of the ideological consciousness of their hunting economy stage. The custom of tree burial existed mainly before the middle of the Tang Dynasty and lasted for a long time, and can be regarded as an early stage of the Khitan concept of funerary burial. The Khitan from tree burial to the emergence of tombs is not only a change in burial customs, but more importantly, the development of society and the progress of culture.

Judging from the discovery of tombs such as Shuangjinggou and Company Tun, from the founding of the Liao Dynasty to the early Liao Dynasty, the Khitan people's cremation customs were mainly influenced by the primitive religion of worshiping the sun and the concept of immortality of the soul, which was the product of the Khitan people's animal husbandry and hunting economy. During this period, the Khitan people have begun to use pots with holes to collect ashes, build tombs for burial, and place burial items to express mourning for the deceased, representing the transformation and progress of the Khitan people's funeral concept, and the burial system has gradually taken shape. The choice of early burial items has obvious nomadic characteristics, reflecting the living conditions of the Khitan people who "live by water and grass". In the middle and late Liao Dynasty, the Cremation customs of the Khitan people were mostly influenced by Buddhism. In general, with the development of society, the Cremation customs of the Khitan people gradually declined, and the burial of bones appeared before the founding of the Liao Dynasty and increasingly occupied the mainstream. The burial of corpses and bones and burials became the most important burial method of the Khitan people in the entire Liao Dynasty, and a relatively complete hierarchical system was formed, indicating that the Khitan burial system was gradually mature.

From the early Khitan period of "those who mourn when their parents die, they think they are not strong", and the funerary custom of burying trees first and then cremation, to the popular burial of bones of Khitan nobles after the founding of the Liao Dynasty, reflecting the khitan people's gradual acceptance of Confucian funeral customs, especially the concept of filial piety.[46] After the founding of the Khitan State, with the continuous development of social economy and the influence of Han culture, the custom of tomb building and burial gradually flourished, and the funeral customs became more and more complete, forming a set of funerary customs combining Han culture and Khitan traditional culture and having strong national characteristics, which became an important part of the ancient tomb system on the mainland.

P.S. In the process of writing this article, I would like to receive guidance and help from Liu Guoxiang, a researcher at the Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and Professor Ren Aijun of the Khitan Liao Cultural Research Institute of Chifeng University.

exegesis

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[1] Xu Pingfang, "Tombs of the Liao Dynasty", Encyclopedia of China, Archaeology, Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, 1986, p. 274.

[2] Hebei Provincial Museum Cultural Relics Management Office: "LiaohanXiang Tomb in Shanglu Village, Qian'an, Hebei Province", Archaeology, No. 5, 1973.

[3] Chaoyang Museum, Chaoyang City District Museum: "Briefing on the Excavation of Tombs No. 3 and 4 of the Geng Family of the Liao Dynasty of Guyingzi, Chaoyang City, Liaoning Province", Archaeology, No. 8, 2011.

[4] Zhelim League Museum, "Several Khitan Tombs Discovered in Inner Mongolia Zhelim League", Archaeology, No. 2, 1984.

[5] Zhelimumeng Museum, "Liao Dynasty Cremation Tombs in Tongliao City, Inner Mongolia", Archaeology, No. 11, 1994.

[6] Bahrain Right Flag Museum: "Inner Mongolia Bahrain Right Banner Tiger Tulu Liao Tomb", Northern Cultural Relics, No. 3, 1988.

[7] Wang Yuping, "The Problem of the Times of Inner Mongolia Zhaowuda League Printed Pottery", Archaeological Communications, No. 4, 1955; "Pottery Excavated from the Liao Dynasty Ruins on the North Slope of Lindong Street, Zhaomeng, Inner Mongolia Zhaomeng, Bahrain, 1956", Cultural Relics Reference, No. 2, 1956.

[8] Inner Mongolia Task Force, Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, "Inner Mongolia Zhaomeng Bahrain Left Banner Shuangjinggou Liao Cremation Tomb", Archaeology, No. 10, 1963.

[9] Ren Aijun, editor-in-chief: Studies in Khitan Studies (2nd Series), The Commercial Press, 2022.

[10] Ao Han Banner Cultural Center: "Ao Han Banner White Pagoda Zi Liao Tomb", Archaeology, No. 2, 1978.

[11] Xiang Chunsong, "Shangyao Pot Liao Tomb Group", Inner Mongolia Cultural Relics and Archaeology, No. 2, 1982.

[12] Xiang Chunsong, "Liao Tomb Discovered on the Outskirts of Chifeng City", Northern Cultural Relics, No. 3, 1991.

[13] Inner Mongolia Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Inner Mongolia Museum, "Briefing on the Excavation of Liao Dynasty Cemetery in Liujia Courtyard, Linxi County, Inner Mongolia", Archaeology, No. 2, 2016.

[14] Wumeng Cultural Relics Workstation and Inner Mongolia Cultural Relics Task Force, "Khitan Female Corpses: Cleaning and Research on the Tomb of Haoyaoying Liao", Inner Mongolia People's Publishing House, 1985, pp. 7-71.

[15] Inner Mongolia Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology: "Liao Tomb of Shuanglonggang, Zhongqi, Keyou", Inner Mongolia Cultural Relics and Archaeology, No. 1, 1997.

[16] Feng Yongqian, "The Liao Tomb of Beipiao Wicker Ditch", Liaoning Cultural Relics, No. 1, 1981.

[17] Zhang Shaoqing, "An Overview of khitan and Liao Tombs Discovered in Kangping, Liaoning", Northern Cultural Relics, No. 4, 1988.

[18] Jin Fengyi and Xu Ji, "Liaoning Tomb No. 1 Guishan, Jianchang, Liaoning", Cultural Relics, No. 3, 1985.

[19] Yan Yu, "Briefing on the Cleaning of the Tomb of Xiao Xiaozhong in Liaoxiao, West Gushan Mountain, Jinxi", Archaeology, No. 2, 1960.

[20] Fuxin Municipal Cultural Relics Task Force, Zhangwu County Cultural Relics Management Office, Fuxin City Museum: "Briefing on the Cleaning of the Tomb of Fuxin Chenggou Liao", Northern Cultural Relics, No. 2, 1998.

[21] [23] Zhelim League Museum, "Several Khitan Tombs Discovered in Inner Mongolia Zhelim League", Archaeology, No. 2, 1984.

[22] Xing'an League Cultural Relics Workstation: "Briefing on the Cleanup of the Tomb of Chintara Liao in the Middle Banner of Keyou Zhongqi", Inner Mongolia Cultural Relics and Archaeology Anthology (Second Series), Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, 1997, pp. 651-667.

[24] Bahrain Right Banner Museum: "A Liao Tomb Found in Wurizhu Mountain, Bahrain Right Banner", Inner Mongolia Cultural Relics and Archaeology, No. 2, 1992.

[25] [Tang] Written by Wei Zheng and Ling Hu Dedi, Book of Sui, vol. 84, Khitans, Zhonghua Bookstore, 1973, p. 1881.

[26] Ren Aijun, "Khitans, Shazili, Tokmak and Nujiang: Khitans and Khitans in History," Journal of Liaoning Normal University, No. 5, 2017.

[27] Zhang Baizhong, "The Humble Relics Found in Jelim League", Cultural Relics, No. 2, 1981; Zhang Baizhong, "Exploration of Early Khitan Culture", Archaeology, No. 2, 1984.

[28] Xu Yongjie, "Archaeological Observations on the Remains of Xianbei", Northern Cultural Relics, No. 4, 1993.

[29] Inner Mongolia Museum: "Excavation Materials of Shijiagou Tomb Group in Zhuozi County", Inner Mongolia Cultural Relics and Archaeology, No. 2, 1998.

[30] [36] Bi Deguang and Wei Jian, "Research on Early Khitan Tombs," Journal of Archaeology, No. 2, 2016.

[31] Ren Aijun, "The Influence of Shensugu and Primitive Religion on the Founding of the Khitan State", Northern Cultural Relics, No. 3, 2002.

[32] Liu Wei, "Research on Khitan Tombs in the Liao Dynasty," Journal of Archaeology, No. 4, 2009.

[33] To the South: Compilation of Stone Inscriptions of the Liao Dynasty, Hebei Education Publishing House, 1995, p. 413.

[34] Bai Jinsong, "Briefing on the Cleaning of the Ancient Tombs of The West Ujul of Chenbal Tiger Banner", Liaohai Journal of Cultural Relics, No. 2, 1989; Yin Huanliang and Bai Jinsong, "Briefing on the Investigation and Cleanup of the Ancient Tombs of Chenbal Tiger Banner West Ujur", Inner Mongolia Cultural Relics and Archaeology, No. 2, 1997.

[35] Wang Cheng and Chen Fengshan, "Briefing on the Cleaning of the New Balhu Left Banner Kangyur Flower Sarcophagus Tomb Group", Inner Mongolia Cultural Relics and Archaeology, No. 1, 1992.

[37] Ge Chengyong, "Interpretation of the Epitaph of the Khitan King Unearthed from the Tang Tomb in the Eastern Suburbs of Xi'an", Archaeology, No. 9, 2003.

[38] Bi Deguang, "Examination of the Tomb of Zhang Clan of Tang Qinghe", Northern Cultural Relics, No. 3, 2012.

[39] Xi'an Institute of Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeology: "Tomb of Proton Hot Dumplings in Xi'an City", Archaeology, No. 10, 2014.

[40] Zhang Baizhong, "The Khitan Tomb of Kezuo Houqi Husnao", Cultural Relics, No. 9, 1983.

[41] Qi Xiaoguang, "The Stone Tomb of Tabu Ao Bao, Right Banner of Bahrain and Related Issues", Inner Mongolia Cultural Relics and Archaeology Anthology (First Series), China Encyclopedia Publishing House, 1994, pp. 454-461.

[42] Inner Mongolia Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Arukorqin Banner Cultural Relics Management Institute: "Briefing on the Excavation of the Liao Mural Tomb in Baoshan, Chifeng, Inner Mongolia", Cultural Relics, No. 1, 1998.

[43] Feng Enxue, "The Sinicization of the Khitans and the Khitanization of the Han People Reflected in the Liao Tombs", Journal of Social Sciences of Jilin University, No. 3, 2011.

[44] [Yuan] Wang Yun, Yang Liang and Zhong Yanfei Diandian School: The Complete Works of Wang Yun, vol. 84, "Wutai Pen Supplement, On the Ritual Of the Zhongdu Table", Zhonghua Bookstore, 2013, p. 3468.

[45] [Song] Written by Zhang Shunmin and compiled by Tang Qinfu: "Record of Paintings", Elephant Publishing House, 2019, p. 307.

[46] Zheng Chengyan, "The Funeral System of the Nobles of the Liao Dynasty", PhD dissertation of Nankai University, 2012.

(Author: Liu Jiangtao, Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences; originally published in Northern Cultural Relics, No. 2, 2022)

Editor-in-charge: Han Han