Tang Yijie: On the issue of "three religions in one" of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism

About a decade ago, Professor Kristofer Schipper, an academician of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences, asked me a question: Why have there been almost no wars in Chinese history for reasons of religious thought? And other countries, nationalities, and regions have often had religious wars of one kind or another in history and reality for reasons of religious thought? I have never studied this question before. At that time, I could only rely on the historical knowledge I knew, perhaps because in China confucianism and Taoism were less exclusive and more inclusive; since the Qin and Han dynasties, the government (imperial power) had a strong control over society, and the government could use policies and systems to regulate the relationship between the three religions. Such an answer is, of course, too general and meaningless. The year before, when the Institute of Confucianism of Peking University was established, the school asked to report the research topics of the Institute, and I thought of the questions raised by Professor Shi Zhouren. In particular, I have noticed that there have been many religious wars in overseas history, such as the historical "Crusades", which have been fought for nearly two hundred years without any results, and today there are still confrontations and wars between Judaism, Christianity and Islam in the Middle East and North Africa, and even different religions in the same country often resort to force, and in India there are often conflicts and wars between Hinduism and Sikhism and Islam; in the Middle East and North Africa, there are also confrontational violence between different sects of Islam in the Middle East and North Africa. Although there are "disasters of three martial arts and one sect" and "disasters of three martial arts and one sect" that destroyed Buddhism for political and economic reasons in China's history, it means that Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou, Emperor Wuzong of Tang, and Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou once excluded Buddhism for political and economic reasons. But there have hardly ever been wars because of differences in religious thought and culture. Although there are contradictions and conflicts between Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, they can coexist and prosper without religious wars, and put forward ideas such as "three religions into one" and "all goodness and the same return" to coordinate the relationship between the three religions. To this end, our institute has designated the "History of the Relationship between Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism" as one of the key topics of research. On this subject, I consider that there may be three aspects that can be paid attention to for our study: (1) the theoretical basis of the Confucian and Taoist concept of "three religions into one"; (2) the policy basis of the "three religions into one" imperial court; (3) the basis of the folk belief in the "three religions of Confucianism and Taoism into one".

I. The theoretical basis of the Confucian concept of "three religions into one"

In China, although confucianism and Taoism have many differences in ideology and concepts, they are less exclusive, while they are more inclusive and harmonious, and their ability to absorb other ideas and cultures is stronger. The Zhongyong says, "All things breed together without harming each other, and the Tao parallels without contradicting each other." These two sentences reflect the inclusiveness of Confucianism. Confucius "spoke but did not do", teaching in poems, books, rituals, and music. This shows that Confucius adhered to the traditional classical system, consciously inherited the spirit of the Classics of the Xia, Shang, and Three Dynasties, pioneered the Confucianization of the "Six Classics" in ancient China, and paid tribute to Laozi, and praised Guan Zhongzhi's governing strategy, laying the foundation for the worldview of the Humanistic spirit of Confucian self-cultivation, Qi family, governance, and peace with "Renxue" as the core. Since then, whether in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States period of the "Hundred Schools of Thought" or in the dynasties and generations of later history, Confucianism has mostly absorbed other cultures to support itself in the debate and conflict with various schools of thought (schools). The Late Warring States Confucian master Xunzi absorbed the ideas of Taoists, Lawyers, and Famous Masters on the basis of inheriting the teachings of Confucius; Yi Chuan organically absorbed the theories of Taoism, Yin and Yang, etc., creating a precedent for Confucianism in philosophical ontology and cosmology. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu even incorporated the Yin-Yang Five Elements Doctrine and the Taoist Huang-Lao Doctrine into his system, while the Han Dynasty family law was actually "wang hegemonic miscellaneous use".

The old Zhuang of the pre-Qin Daoist family said in "Rong Nai Gong" [Song] Lin Xiyi's "Zhuangzi KouYi": "The valley is below, and the valley that can accommodate things is the valley for the stream, and there is the meaning of Rong nai da. The idea of "the unification of the various schools of the Spring and Autumn Warring States" created another ideological system with the idea of nature and inaction that had a great influence on China. Lao Tzu's "Taoism" became the source of Chinese wisdom. The "Zhuangzi Tianxia Chapter" for the first time put forward the ideal of Chinese social thought and culture of "the way of the inner saint and the outer king", although there are praises and demeans to the ideas of the pre-Qin families, the length of the comments, and the Taoist thought as the highest, but it does not reject other doctrines, which also fully reflects the inclusiveness of Taoism. The Miscellaneous Family's "Lü's Spring and Autumn" and "Huainanzi" are actually based on Taoist thought, integrating the pre-Qin families, embodying the spirit of tolerance and greatness, which may be quite related to the Huang Lao Daoists of the Qin and Han Dynasties. Wei and Jin metaphysics actually integrated Confucianism on the basis of Taoist thought to discuss the issues of "the end of the world" and "natural famous religion", and absorbed the "criminal name" family sayings to form a system, thus pushing Chinese philosophical thought to a new stage.

Buddhism was introduced to China from the Han Dynasty, initially attached to the Tao of Han, and then attached to metaphysics, and the mutual criticism and questioning between Buddhism and Confucianism and Confucianism in the Southern and Northern Dynasties were quite fierce (see "Hongming Collection"), but many Of the Chinese scholars and masters believed in Buddhism or endorsed Buddhism, and even Emperor Liangwu wanted to sacrifice himself to enter buddhism, but still set up a doctor of the Five Classics, and said: "Shuo Si expounds the outline, each Dun Confucianism." (Liangshu Wudi Ji) shows that Confucianism and Buddhism are not incompatible. During the Two Jin Dynasties and the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Taoism gradually flourished, and the dispute between Buddhism and Taoism gradually arose. During the Liu Song Dynasty, Gu Huan wrote the "Treatise on Yixia" to distinguish between the two religions, adhering to the realm of Yixia, revering the Tao and suppressing the Buddha, and establishing the theory of the evil of indian customs and the goodness of the Chinese style, but still taking Kong, Lao, and Shi Tong as saints, "(Buddha, Dao) The Second Classics say, such as conformity, Dao ze Buddha, Buddha Ze Dao also" [Southern Dynasty Liang] Xiao Zixian: Book of Southern Qi, vol. 54. Looking at the two or three hundred years of the Six Dynasties, although the three religions of Confucianism, Interpretation, and Taoism debated, attacked, and slandered each other fiercely, most of them began with the "equal goodness" of the three religions, and the theory of the reconciliation of the three teachings of Kong, Lao, and Shi were all saints. For example, Sangshao's "Treatise on the Orthodox Two Teachings" says, "The depth of the world, the extreme of Kong Lao", "the righteousness of divine merit, the propagation of Buddhism". Liu Xun's "Theory of Annihilation": "To the extreme of the Daoist Sect, it is one. The true realm of the magic method is inherently unique. Zhang Rong's "Theory of the Door": "The Tao is also the same as the Buddha, and the comic is extremely indistinguishable." Silence is the same. This kind of harmonious division of labor is actually in Muzi's "Theory of Confusion", such as saying: "Yao Shun Zhou Kong, the cultivation of the world; Buddha and Lao Tzu, WuWei Zhiye." "Gold and jade do not hurt each other, and spirit does not hurt each other." He even said that the way of Confucianism and Buddhism is the same, saying: "The Tao is a thing, you can do things at home, you can rule the country, and you can rule the body independently." Doing what you do, filling the heavens and the earth, abolishing it and not using it, and disappearing without leaving it. The son does not understand, why is it different? This statement means that Buddhism is no different from Confucianism in "governing the country", "doing things", and "governing the body". In "The Theory of Shamen Disrespecting the King", Hui Yuan argues that although Buddhism and Confucianism have functional differences in "birth" and "accession", they are ultimately the same in terms of social needs, "The Taoism and the famous teachings, such as Rulai and Yao kong, although the origin is different, the potential influence, the source is sincere, and the end is the same." Hui Yuan's disciple Zong Bing's "Treatise on the Ming Buddha" said: "Kong, Lao, and Rulai, although the three teachings are different paths, the practice of goodness is also the same." This shows that Buddhism entered China and had to find a foothold in this kind of conciliation theory in order to meet the needs of Chinese culture. At the same time, because Buddhism became more and more popular among all social strata because of its theory of religious belief during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, especially its influence on the scholars and doctors at that time, there were also many Confucian scholars who held the theory of the harmony of the three religions, such as the Northern Qi Great Confucian Yan Zhitui said in the "Yan Family Training and Return to the Heart": "The first gate of the inner code, set up five kinds of prohibitions, which are consistent with the five constants of renyi and righteousness in the outer book." The benevolent one is forbidden not to kill; the righteous are forbidden to steal; the ceremonial, the forbidden to be evil; the wise, the forbidden not to drink; the believer, the forbidden to be vain. This kind of analogy is conducive to the spread of Buddhism. In the Sui Dynasty, the theory of the reconciliation of the three religions went further, and there is a saying that "all good things are the same". Emperor Wen of Sui revered the Buddha very deeply, and in his edict in March of the first year of the reign of the Emperor, it was said: "The Law has no inside and outside, and all goodness is the same; the teaching is shallow and deep, and the special path is common." According to this view, the three religions of Gai can "return to the same place" and are all in "guiding the people to goodness", so Li Yuan, the emperor of Tang Gaozu, said: "Although the three religions are different, the good is returned to one." This shows that emperors in Chinese history have noticed that religion is beneficial to "governance."

Confucianism advocates "the Tao is parallel and not contradictory", Taoism advocates "tolerance is great", and Sinicized Buddhism also advocates inclusiveness between different religious ideas, such as Tang Zongmi's "Introduction to Huayan Yuanren": "Kong, Lao, and Shakya are all the most holy, ready to respond to things, set up special paths for religion, internal and external resources, common interests, and diligent practice... If the punishment of evil and the exhortation of good are the same, then all three religions can be obeyed. Why Chinese Buddhism advocates the same return of the three religions is related to the popular "judgment of religion" in Chinese Buddhist sects at that time. Since the Sui and Tang dynasties, Chinese Buddhism such as Tiantai, Huayan, Zen Buddhism, etc. have all had the theory of judging teachings, that is, the various schools or doctrines in Buddhism are arranged according to high and low, which is a problem within the Buddhist sect, but the sects have expanded and expanded, and the Confucian and Taoist schools have also been included in their "judgment" series to show the broad tolerance of their teachings. This may be so that although the various schools of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism in China can compete for superiority, discuss functional similarities and differences, and even slander and slander, they can eventually intersect with "Wen", and can not resort to violence and will not start a religious war.

In short, in the great tradition of Chinese culture, the three schools of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism all have different degrees of inclusiveness and harmony in their ideological theories, which is the basis for the ideological concept that there has been almost no "religious war" in China's history.

II. The policy basis of the Confucian "three religions into one" imperial court

Since the Fall of the Qin and Han Dynasties, Chinese society has become a unified society of imperial despotism, and how to deal with various ideological and religious sects is a major matter related to social stability. The rapid death of Qin, as Jia Yi summed up, is due to the high-pressure violence of the Fa family, and does not know that "benevolence and righteousness are not applied, and the strength of attack and defense is different" (New Book, vol. 1). Emperor Wen of the early Han Dynasty ruled with Huang Laozhi's "quiet and inaction", and in fact, huang lao Daoists at this time had absorbed some Confucian ideas. See "Preface" written by Tang Yijie for Chen Jing, "The Confusion of Freedom and Order: A Study of Huainanzi", Yunnan University Press, 2004. Although Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty advocated "deposing the Hundred Families and respecting Confucianism alone", at this time The Confucians had absorbed more of the ideas of the Huang Lao, Yin and Yang, and the Fa, and Emperor Xuan ruled with "Wang Ba's Miscellaneous Uses". According to Yang Shuda's statistics, there are more than sixty people who rule "Lao Tzu" in the two Han Dynasties, which shows that the rulers of the two Han Dynasties are still relaxed on various schools of doctrine in terms of policy.

At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism had begun to be introduced to China, and how to deal with foreign ideas and culture was a new problem for those in power in the Han Dynasty. At that time, the imperial court regarded the entry of Buddhism only as one of many Taoist techniques, and Buddhism tried its best to use Chinese thought and culture to explain Buddhism, such as [Wu] Chen Hui's "Notes on Yin Holding into the Scriptures" to explain the "five yin species" as saying: "The body is also ... And it's still alive. In the Forty-two Chapters Sutra, "It is better to be filial to the two gods of heaven and earth than to filial piety to their second relatives, and the gods of the highest of the two relatives." [Beiliang] Tan Wuchen and other translations of the "Great Collection Of Sutras": "If there is no Buddha in the world, the parents who do good deeds are the buddhas who do things." In the Kang Monk's Six Degrees Collection, Volume VIII, "The Sutra of the King of Chawei", it is said: "The soul and the yuan qi are in harmony, and they begin and begin, and the rotation is endless, and it is interesting to believe in life and death." ”。 In the early transmission of Buddhism, there were no restrictions on the imperial court and the official palace, and there were things such as "King Ying of Chu fasting sacrifice for the floating tu" and "Emperor Huan made sacrifices to the Second Clan of Buddhism in the palace". Buddhism entered China, first attached to Taoism, and then attached to metaphysics, and became popular. During the Jin Dynasty, the metaphysical ontology with Lao Zhuang thought as the skeleton was very popular, and the center of the metaphysical discussion was the question of "whether there is an end to the end", and the Buddhist Prajnaparamita theory of "emptiness" was similar to metaphysics, so at that time monks mostly used metaphysics to explain the Dharma, comparing it with the methods of "geyi" and "continuous class". See Tang Yongtong's "On The Meaning of Ge", The Complete Works of Tang Yongtong, Vol. III, Hebei People's Publishing House, 2000. Therefore, the emperors and celebrities of that time often flaunted themselves as free and supernatural. In the Western Jin Dynasty, there was a branch of Xiaolong who befriended the famous warriors Ruan Zhan and Yu Shu, known as "Bada"; the Eastern Jin Dynasty Sun wrote "On the Daoxian", which was compared with the seven monks of the bamboo forest. Many famous monks were proficient in lao zhuang learning. See Tang Yongtong, "History of Buddhism in the Southern and Northern Dynasties of the Han and Wei Dynasties", The Complete Works of Tang Yongtong, Vol. 1, Hebei People's Publishing House, 2000. Gai is as Dao'an said in the Preface to the Nose Naiye: "In the twelve parts, the Vijaya is the most, and the old teachings of the Sibang people are similar to the Fang and other sutras and forgetfulness, so it is easy to walk because of the wind." (Ming Mei Dingzuo's Shiwen Ji, vol. 44) The two Jin emperors also had worshippers, such as emperor Ming of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Emperor Lai, Jian Wen, Xiao Wu, emperor Gong, and so on. During the Liu Song Dynasty, the emperors and celebrities also revered the Dharma. However, at the same time, due to the increasing number of translations of Buddhist texts, it has been seen that there are many differences between Buddhism and Confucianism and Taoism, so there is a debate between Confucianism and Taoism, and the literature on the controversy is contained in the "Hongming Collection" and will not be repeated. During the last two Jin Dynasties, during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, although Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism attacked, slandered, criticized, and debated each other, they did not violently oppose each other for ideological and cultural reasons. According to historical records, after buddhism was introduced to China, for more than a thousand years, only the "disaster of three weapons and one sect" that destroyed Buddhism occurred. However, these "extinctions" were mainly due to political and economic reasons. Taking Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei Dynasty as an example, although the "extinction of Buddhism" at that time may be related to the favored Confucian scholar Cui Hao and the Taoist Tianshi Kou Qianzhi, it was mainly due to the rapid development of Buddhism, resulting in too many monks and a shortage of soldiers; the temple occupied too much land, and the tax revenue was greatly reduced; the national treasury was empty, endangering the imperial court, so there was a matter of destroying Buddhism. But the use of political power to combat and eliminate religion is often unsuccessful. When Emperor Wencheng ascended the throne, he had to change the policy of Emperor Taiwu, and Buddhism developed again, which shows that the impact of the imperial court policy on the rise and fall of religion was crucial.

According to the Book of Sui and the Book of Classics, the Sui Dynasty "had dozens of times more folk Buddhist scriptures than the Six Classics." This is due to the fact that Emperor Yang Jian of the Sui Dynasty and Emperor Yang Guang of the Sui Dynasty awarded the Dharma. During the reign of the Kai Emperor, that is, the Puzhao World, Ren Ting ordained, and in more than 50 states, more than 230,000 monks and nuns were established, and the Three Teachings On Balance Conference was held. Since then, the matter of the balance of the three religions has been prevalent in the Sui and Tang dynasties. However, Emperor Wen of Sui also knew that in order to consolidate imperial rule, it was still necessary to attach equal importance to Confucianism, so in the first year of the kaihuang emperor," he issued an edict saying: "The law is neither inside nor outside, and all goodness is the same; the teaching is shallow and deep, and the special path is common." ”

According to Daoxuan's "Collection of Ancient and Modern Buddhist And Taoist Theories and Balances", the Sui and Tang dynasties mostly carried out "on balance" in the two religions of Buddhism and Taoism, but it was actually a three-religion theory of balance, and as a result of the debate, the Tao or the Buddha were determined by the monarch who revered the Tao or the Buddha, but whether the monarch revered the Tao or the Buddha, the system he practiced was inseparable from the politicized Confucian thought, so the "Buddhist Tao theory and balance" was actually the "three religions on the balance". In this way, religion not only received a certain degree of courtesy and recognition from the government, but also strengthened the dependence on the regime and established its authority. This kind of "three religions on balance" under the auspices and regulation of the imperial court can undoubtedly help eliminate violent conflicts between religions. There was the Tang Dynasty, the "Three Teachings on Balance" or The Buddha or the Tao, but they were all carried out under the political system. Although Emperor Taizong gave Xuanzang special courtesy, Xuanzang asked those monks who did not follow the customary law to give them the right to punish within the church, which Emperor Taizong categorically refused. See Tang Yijie et al., eds., The Grand View of Chinese Confucian Culture, Peking University Press, 2001, p. 601. This was due to the fact that Emperor Taizong knew that the long-term peace and stability of the regime would still be based on Confucian etiquette. In the second year of Zhenguan, Emperor Taizong said to his courtiers, "The only one who is good in the present is in the way of Yao and Shun, and the teachings of Zhou and Kong." It is thought that like a bird with wings, like a fish clinging to the water, if it is lost, it will die, and it must not be earless for a while. (Zhenguan Politicians, vol. 6) Therefore, in the fifth year of Zhenguan, the monks and monks paid homage to their parents, and they still gave priority to etiquette. Tang Yongtong: Manuscripts of the History of Sui and Tang Buddhism, The Complete Works of Tang Yongtong, Vol. II, Hebei People's Publishing House, 2000, p. 19. As the Old Book of Tang and The Biography of Confucianism says: "(Confucianism) can be righteous, noble, beautiful, and customary. Therefore, the former king of ancient Zhe, a man of Confucianism. In the Tang Dynasty, there was still a system of "degrees", and monks were monks and Taoists, and they should be shen to Yousi. From these aspects, the imperial court's institutional policies toward Buddhism and Taoism laid the foundation for the elimination of "religious wars." Since the Tang Dynasty, the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties have generally done the same.

Third, confucianism and Taoism "three religions into one" folk belief basis

For the religious beliefs of ancient China, many western thinkers call it "the religion of natural deity worship", such as Leibniz, etc., but I think that in ancient China, there was not only the worship of "deism" religious deities, but also the worship of personality gods or ancestral gods. The Xia, Shang, and Wednesday dynasties have always had the rituals of offering sacrifices to heaven, earth, and ancestors, so there are "Temples of Heaven", "Temples of Earth", and "Altars of Sheji"; there are also Temples of the Yellow Emperor that worship the common ancestors of the Chinese nation, Xuanyuan Huangdi, and ancestral halls dedicated to ancestors of various surnames. According to the Yin Ruins oracle bones, there are still sacrifices to gods such as wind and rain. This shows two problems: one is that ancient China was not a monotheistic religion; the other is that China's multiple beliefs in the gods can exist at the same time, and there is no strong exclusivity.

The Chinese nation is a big family of multi-ethnic coexistence, and as Mr. Fei Xiaotong said, China is a "pluralistic and integrated" country. Due to the different geographical environments, historical and cultural traditions of various ethnic groups, it is impossible for customs, habits and beliefs to be the same. However, from the perspective of Chinese history and culture, since ancient times, the emperors at that time pursued "harmony and all nations". "Shang Shu Yao Dian": "Once upon a time, Emperor Yao, wise And wise, and the light of the world, will be inferior to the throne, and give way to Yu Shun, making the "Yao Dian". The Yao Dian (尧典) is known as Ruo Ji Gu, Di Yao, Yue Fangxun, Qin Ming Wen Si An An, Yun Gong Ke Rang, and the light is four tables, and the grid is up and down. Keming Junde, to pro-Nine Tribes. The nine tribes are harmonious and peaceful. The people are clear, and the harmony is all nations. Li Min is in a change of time. By the time of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, there were hundreds of sons and hundreds of families, Confucianism advocated "the world is the same", The Mo family advocated "both love and Shangtong", and Taoists advocated "natural inaction" Lao Tzu Chapter 57: "... Therefore, the sage Yun: I do nothing and the people are self-sufficient, I am quiet and the people are self-righteous, I have nothing to do and the people are rich, I have no desire and the people are simple", the famous masters advocate "different contracts" or "separation from the white", only the legalists reuse "law, technique, and potential" to "unify thinking", but the founder of the Legalists, Guan Zhong, may be different. At this time, although the various families had different views, they were dissatisfied with the situation of successive years of war and chaos, and hoped that a stable "great unification" society would emerge. The Qin and Han dynasties achieved great unification politically, but the worship of "natural gods" and the worship of "ancestral personality gods" from the imperial court to the people were still widely popular. The Book of Han and the Chronicle of the Suburbs says: "Hong Fan has eight governments and three rituals. Worshipper, Zhao Filial Ancestor, Theosophical Mingya. Beside and the four Yi, do not cultivate it; down to the beasts, the jackals have sacrifices. This means that from the emperor to the common people (including the Four Yi) must sacrifice to the ancestors. The chronicle also records the eight gods of Qin Shi Huang's "ancestral name mountains and rivers and eight gods": one is the God of Heaven, the ancestral heavenly Qi; the second is the landlord, the father of the ancestral Taishan Liang; the third is the lord of the soldiers, the ancestral temple you; the fourth is the yin lord, the ancestral three mountains; the fifth is the Yang lord, the ancestral temple of the fu mountain; the sixth is the moon lord, the ancestral Lai mountain; the seventh day lord, the ancestral sheng mountain, the eighth day four time lord, the ancestral lang evil. (See Book of Han and Suburban Ancestral Records), from the following: "All these shrines are too blessed to be the Lord, and when they are old, they are enshrined to ... Those who worship in the distant places of counties and counties, the people worship their own shrines..." It can be seen that at that time, there were many names of "natural gods" and "ancestral personality gods" worshiped by the people. See also the Book of Han and the Chronicle of the Suburbs, In the second year of the Reign of emperor Yuan of the Han Dynasty, many of which were worshipped by the people, many of which originated from the gods worshipped by the people. Tang Yongtong's "History of Buddhism in the Southern and Northern Dynasties of the Han and Wei Dynasties" can also be referred to in the section "Ghost God Fangshu". Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty "especially respects the worship of ghosts and gods". At that time, there were gods worshipped such as "Ancestral Stove", "Ancestral Eastern Taiyi", "Ancestral Dipper" and so on. The Later Han Shu Fang Shu Lie Biography: "Emperor Wu of Han was quite good at Fang Shu, and he was a man of Daoist art in the world, and he did not fail to live up to his strategy, and went with the wind." Later Wang Mang corrected the use of spells, and Guangwu Youxin said that the soldiers were suitable for fun, and they all galloped through the chisels and argued. "Because of the favor of the emperor and the imperial court, folk techniques competed for it." You praise the gods", "explore the meditation", "its flow also has the wind angle, the hidden armor, the seven governments, the yuan qi, the six days, the seven points, the feng zhan, the day, the special, the beard, the lonely void technique, and the wangyun province qi, push the auspicious demon" and other folk techniques. See Later Han Shu Fang Shu Lie Biography. All of these techniques either directly or indirectly carry elements of the worship of the gods. Their impact is often geographically limited, small in scale and limited in number of adherents.

Since the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced to China, followed by the establishment of Taoism, which has brought about great changes in China's folk religion and belief in gods. Although there are still many folk techniques circulating, because Buddhism and Taoism have gradually become organized, classic, unified rituals, and masters of the highest belief, especially each has a set of theories and customs of good and evil, life and death, misfortune and so on, so the influence on folk beliefs is increasing, and it has become the mainstream of Chinese beliefs that affect daily life. Since ancient times, Chinese folk have been in a situation where multiple gods coexist and are compatible, "different and harmonious" may have become a stereotype. Therefore, after the Fall of the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the Buddha and the Tao became regular religious groups, and the broad masses of the people competed to follow them.

According to the historical records since the Tang and Song dynasties, we can see that in general, folk families in China still strictly adhere to the Confucian "etiquette", such as ancestor worship, loyalty and forgiveness, filial piety, etc.; they have a deep belief in buddhist concepts of cause and effect, reincarnation, compassion, etc.; and they generally follow the Taoist Taoist techniques of health maintenance, fasting, and pranayama. Even, although some scholars and masters followed the "etiquette" in their dealings, their personal beliefs were Buddhism, such as Wang Wei, Bai Juyi, Liu Zongyuan of the Tang Dynasty, and the "Three Sus" of the Song Dynasty. With the rise of the Song Dynasty, with the "entering and leaving the Buddha, opposing the Six Sutras" as the guideline, some great Confucians theoretically rejected the Buddhist Tao, but individuals still interacted with the Tao and the Buddha, and respected or loved the cultivation and health of the Buddhist Tao. For example, Zhou Dunyi was once praised by the Shouya Zen master "There is a thing in the heavens and the earth", and he said that his wonderful experience was attributed to the Huanglong Huinan Zen master. According to Chen Rongjie's "Zhu Zi's New Exploration", Zhu Xi was studied by Dahui Zonggao when he was young, and when he went to the examination, he only had the "Quotations of The Zen Master of Dahui Zonggao" in his examination, and tried to discuss with Dahui "The righteousness of reason is the righteousness of benevolence", which was quite the same view. Zhu Xi also longed for the Taoist Neidanshu throughout his life, and once wrote the Taoist Danshu "Zhou YiShan Tong Qi Kao Yi" under the pseudonym "Empty Tong Daoist Zou". Chen Rongjie: Zhu Zixin's Exploration, Taipei: Student Bookstore, 1988, pp. 38, 641, 647. Zhu Xi's lifelong interaction with monks and Taoists, singing and harmony is one of the most popular song and science scholars. Wang Yangming is also quite related to Taoism, and in the "Records of Transmission and Practice", there is a lecture on the Taoist "essence, qi, and god" health care techniques. Yang Mingzhi was deeply influenced by Zen Buddhism and is well known to scholars, and his attack on Zen Buddhism was the most intense, because he insisted on the Confucian position of Confucius and Mengmeng throughout his life. However, looking at the whole book of "Transmission and Practice", he used Zen language, Zen story, and Zen family techniques. Chen Rongjie: Wang Yangming and Zen, Taipei: Student Bookstore, 1984, pp. 73-75. This phenomenon, perhaps we can say, because Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming both stand on the orthodox Confucian position, but because Confucianism has a strong absorption and inclusiveness, it can make better use of some resources of the Buddhist Tao, which is very beneficial to the coexistence of the three religions.

After the Song and Yuan dynasties, in Chinese society, the worship of folk gods became more and more popular, and the worship of the stove prince, the god of wealth, the land lord, and even the Guan Gong Wusheng was very common. Press: There were many such "treasure scrolls" in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. However, the Confucian doctrine of "coexistence and division of labor among the three religions" is better accepted by civil society than the theory of "three religions being one" ("unity of the three religions"). Although the "three religions coexist and divide labor" theory is not the same, as a model of different religious cultures, it is quite beneficial to the "three religions into one". Emperor Xiaozong of the Southern Song Dynasty said: "Cultivate the mind with Buddha, rule the body with Tao, and rule the world with Confucianism." [Yuan] Liu Mi: "The Theory of The Three Religions of Peace of Mind" volume. [Song] Li Xinchuan: "Miscellaneous Records of the Dynasty and the Wild Since Jianyan", Volume B, Volume III, "The Theory of the Three Religions of the Original Dao Dialectic", says that "Emperor Shou tasted the "Original Dao Discernment" roughly said that the three religions are not far apart ... Cultivate the mind with the Buddha, maintain health with the Tao, and rule the world with Confucianism." Yelü Chucai, the prime minister of the Yuan Dynasty, said: "If the way of the master rules the world, the way of the old clan cultivates nature, and the way of the Shi clan cultivates the mind, this ancient and modern general discussion is also, giving up this past, all heretical ears." ([Yuan] Yelü Chucai: "The Book of Marshal Zhao in the Zhanran Jushi Collection and Volume VIII of the Collected Works") This statement may have a typical significance since the Song and Yuan dynasties. In the late Tang Dynasty, Zhang Yanyuan, a scholar and master, wrote in the "Yin Record of the Three Ancestors' Masters": "Fu Yu Confucian Dao reasons with reason, and Feng Shi Shi cultivates the mind and cultivates nature. The Northern Song Dynasty monk Zhiyuan said: "Confucianism, the teaching of the body, is therefore called the outer canon; the interpreter, the religion of cultivating the mind, is therefore called the inner canon." "Therefore, I cultivate myself to Confucianism, and I cure my heart to release." Qingshamen Zuyuan Chaoming's "Records of the Return of the Ten Thousand Laws to the Heart" says: "Interpretation of the nature of teachings, Taoist cultivation, Confucianism." Although the entry is special, the source is the same. Taoism preached the theory of "coexistence of the division of labor among the three religions" during the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, which was beneficial to the world, and was more prominent than Confucianism and Buddhism. Gaiyin Taoism's power in society is generally inferior to that of Confucianism and Buddhism, so it is necessary to show its function of civil society more. For example, zhang Boduan, a Daoist priest of the Southern Sect of the Northern Song Dynasty Jindan, reconciled the three religions from the aspect of mentality, saying: "The Shi clan takes emptiness as its sect... The Lao clan is true to refining... Jonny is extremely good at the mystery of life. ...... Although the teachings are divided into three parts, the Tao is one. [Northern Song] Zhang Boduan: "The Preface to the True Chapters of Enlightenment". Chen Zhixuan, a Daoist priest of the Quanzhen Sect of the Yuan Dynasty, said, "The way of the three religions, one is also." The saints have no two hearts, the Buddhas have clear minds, the Confucians have a clear heart, the Tao is clear in his heart and the gods are clear, and the language is different and the heart is the same. It is the way of the three religions, and there is only one heart. (Jin Dan Dajiao, vol. 14) The Yuan Dynasty Quanzhen Sect Daoist Priest Mu Changchao said: "Or ask: Confucian right heart, Buddha knows clear heart, old man knows the humble heart, are there similarities and differences between these three?" Answer: Thinking innocently knows righteousness, reflects on oneself, does not hide selfish desires, and sets up three hearts, and is also a truth. Due to the prevalence of the concept of "three religions into one", in the Ming Dynasty, Lin Zhao'en established the "Trinity Religion" with Confucianism as the main body, and "erected a temple to sculpt the image of the three religions, Shakya in the center, Lao Tzu on the left, and Wufuzi as the statue of The Confucian Bodhisattva, and placed on its last seat." The gentry also believe in it." [Qing] Lu Shiyi: "Speculative Records", vol. 31. To this day, we can still see some temples and halls dedicated to the statues of the three religions, such as the "Changchun Temple" in Wuhan. Even, when performing funerals, according to the Confucian "etiquette", the monks are asked to chant the sutra beyond the time. It can be seen that all walks of life in the folk believe that the three religions can coexist, and this situation is difficult to completely prohibit by administrative order.

Covering the Chinese cosmic philosophy of life, as early as the pre-Qin Kongmeng discussed the problem of "mental nature", Qin and Han discussed the problem of "Yuan Qi", while Wei Jin turned to the ontological problem of "whether there is an end to the end", and Buddhism entered China in the Southern and Northern Dynasties from the Prajnaparamita Sect to the discussion of "Nirvana Buddha-nature". Since the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "one heart and three views" of the Buddhist Tiantai, the "Buddha-nature" of Huayan is the "true heart" of man, the "clear mind of Zen Buddhism", the "true and constant mind" of Taoism into Xuanying is the "positive nature of all sentient beings", and Li Aozhi's "Book of Restoration" is "to take care of its mind" is to "restore its nature". To Song Ming, both "sex is reason" (science of science) and "heart is reason" (science of mind) are the science of mental nature, while Buddhism and Taoism also emphasize "mental nature", and "the study of mental nature" is the common theoretical basis of the three religions, so the theory of "three religions being one" is actually based on this "mental ontology". In the "Purpose of Life", it is said: "Confucianism has the cultivation of the mind, the Tao knows the cultivation of the mind, the interpretation of the clear mind, and the nature of the mind." From this, it can be seen that the rational path of "three religions into one" ("three religions in one") from the development of the three religions is actually "water to water". The significance and theoretical value of the "three religions into one" in Chinese society, the coexistence of different religions, mutual absorption, and harmony, resulting in Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism being able to have "literary struggles" (emphasizing that their own reasoning is higher than other religions through argumentation) and no "martial struggles" ("religious wars in which different religions have different ideological and cultural beliefs, but no soldiers and fight each other" in different religions) is worthy of our attention, and should also be used as a reference for the various forms of wars that occur in today's world because of differences in religious beliefs. In the ninth year of the Yongzheng Dynasty of the Qing Dynasty, it is said: "There are three religions in the domain, namely Confucianism, Confucianism, Yue Shi, Yue Dao, Confucianism is a saint, establishing a life for the people, is the Great Scripture dafa for ruling the world, and the clear mind of the Shi clan, the Taoist refining qi concentration, is also not contrary to the purpose of my Confucian heart to nourish the qi, and its teachings are all based on persuading others to be good, abstaining from evil, and also supplementing the governance." [Qing] Liu Jinzao: "Qing Continuing Literature Examination", vol. 89. From this, it can be seen that since the Han Dynasty in Chinese history, successive emperors and imperial courts have attached importance to the relationship between the three religions, which is undoubtedly crucial to its fundamental policy of ruling the world with Confucianism.

Whether the above mentioned question can be answered more satisfactorily by Professor Shi Zhouren, I do not dare to be confident, and I hope that experts and scholars will criticize and correct it. However, I think that the inherent inclusiveness and harmony of the three schools of Thought in China, confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism are indeed more conducive to avoiding religious wars than the strong "exclusivity" of some other religions. The system and religious policies of the emperor and the imperial court, the form of "three religions on balance", and the constraints of "etiquette" and "regulations" of the regime play an external binding force on the beliefs of different religions, ideologies and cultures, or they can also sum up useful experiences from them. Since ancient times, the tradition of pluralistic deity worship in Chinese society and the rational thinking mode of various classes can also be reasonably explained. Life in the world, always hope to get a happy life, there is a good faith will support people to achieve happiness, so faith is an indispensable part of human social life, or believe in a certain religion, or believe in a certain doctrine, doctrine, or believe in the power of science and technology, which often depends on the social environment, life experience, personal character and the influence of historical and cultural traditions, etc. Many aspects, the relationship between religions is undoubtedly a topic that we should seriously study. In short, the Chinese nation's long-standing ideological tradition of "three religions into one" should contribute to the "peaceful coexistence" of the world and to the "universal harmony of mankind.".