Scientific development is not a straight line towards truth, but all kinds of mistakes have become catalysts for human beings to make various breakthroughs.
But not all errors have catalyst properties, and some mistakes can evolve into bigger mistakes.
In the twentieth century there was a great chemist who rewrote the history of chemistry, and his name was Pauling.
As a nobel laureate, he was not only a gifted chemist, but also an advocate of the world peace movement.
He was named one of the 20 most outstanding scientists ever by the British weekly New Scientist, alongside Newton, Marie Curie and Einstein.
Albert Einstein used to praise Pauling from the bottom of his heart: "This man is a true genius." ”
But he made a mistake, a mistake that is still taken seriously today.
Linus Carl Pauling
Pauling was born on February 28, 1901, to a poor family in Oregon.
His father, a pharmacist, died when he was 9 years old, and his mother suffered from severe depression.
Speaking of chemistry, how this seed was buried in his heart is impossible to verify.
Some said that the experiments his classmates showed him attracted him, while others said that his father's dispensing process intrigued him, and in any case, chemistry has been inseparable from him since then.
He entered high school at the age of 13, which systematically understood chemistry, and the mystery of one substance suddenly becoming another made him love chemistry even more.
Three years later, limited by his family's circumstances, he had to enroll in the nearest school and study chemistry at Oregon Agricultural College.
He was already smart and studied extremely hard, and after graduation, he studied at the California Institute of Technology and quickly mastered many revolutionary technologies.
With his in-depth study of crystal structure, he received his Ph.D. with the best grades.
California Institute of Technology
Europe of that era was still the center of the scientific community, the stars shining brightly, and Germany was the center of Europe.
Pauling, who received his Ph.D., traveled to Germany to find opportunities to meet more scientists who excelled in the fields of quantum mechanics and physical chemistry.
He saw a wide path in Sommerfeld's speeches; he had gained a lot from working in Bohr's laboratory for several months; and he had gone to Zurich to do research with Schrödinger on the feasibility of solving chemical problems in quantum mechanics.
Pauling, Werner Kuhn and Pauli on a cruise ship in Europe in 1926
But Pauling didn't want to switch to physics, he was very obsessed with chemistry, he just wanted to master physics and be able to apply it to the study of chemistry.
This is also due to the teachers he studied in the United States, who foresaw the fusion of physical chemistry, arranged a sufficient number of physics classes for Pauling's studies, and even invited some physics giants to visit and teach on a regular basis.
After Pauling returned to China after completing his studies, he devoted himself to the study of the nature of chemical bonds.
He tried to continue Schrödinger's research and use quantum mechanics to solve chemical problems.
His understanding of chemistry and physics allowed him to think outside the thinking of traditional chemists to explore the fundamentals of the problem.
In February 1931, he proposed and published valence bond theory*, and has since published papers.
*Note: A single atom will have unpaired electrons, and when the orbits of two atoms overlap, these unpaired electrons will combine in pairs to form a pair of electrons, forming a covalent bond, and they will not be able to pair with the third electron.
Valence bond theory pursues "visualization" and can explain chemical bonds very cleverly.
However, valence bond theory also has its limitations, such as methane (CH4) valence bond theory can not exist, but experimental results show that methane is a regular tetrahedral structure.
Carbon tetrahedral structure is an old problem in chemistry, and there has been no reliable explanation for nearly 60 years.
Pauling then added hybrid orbital theory, arguing that when carbon atoms bond, their own orbitals "hybridize" to form a regular tetrahedron.
Molecular model of methane
Hybrid orbital theory can explain not only CH4, but also the vast majority of molecular structures.
In addition, Pauling also creatively proposed the theory of electronegativity and resonance, and in 1939 compiled the book "The Nature of Chemical Bonds".
Although the theory in The Nature of Chemical Bonds is not irreplaceable*, it has epoch-making significance in the history of chemistry.
**Note: In the same period, the molecular orbital theory represented by Hunter in Germany, Jones in the United Kingdom, and Mullican in the United States can compete with Essence.
At that time, the classification of chemistry was not rigorous, and chemistry was divided into four sub-disciplines: crystal structure chemistry, stereo organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, and physical chemistry, and their respective phenomena and theories have always conflicted with each other.
A series of theories in "The Nature of Chemical Bonds" successfully defused their conflicts, turning chemistry into a whole.
Pauling studying the molecular structure of chemistry (second from right)
In addition to its scholarly value, The Nature of Chemical Bonds is also of revolutionary significance in teaching.
In 1947, Pauling published his freshman textbook "General Chemistry" based on "The Nature of Chemical Bonds", and three years later published "College Chemistry".
This makes chemistry no longer rely solely on scientifically trained perceptions and experimental experience, but has a theoretical core like mathematics and physics.
Therefore, chemistry can be regarded as one of the basic disciplines of natural sciences of "mathematical physics and chemistry".
The Pauling family
Pauling's work on chemical bonds has also changed his position in the scientific community:
In 1931, he became the youngest professor at the California Institute of Technology, and two years later was inducted into the National Academy of Sciences, becoming the youngest fellow in history at the time.
In 1954, Pauling won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the significance of chemical bonds to scientific research and teaching.
Nobel Medal
Pauling has also dabbled in the field of biology, and has also achieved many results using the idea of molecular structure.
He made two major contributions in biology: elucidating the α spiral structure of proteins, which opened the way for the demystification of proteins; proving that sickle cell anemia was due to mutations in hemoglobin, and proposing the concept of molecular diseases.
In the early 1950s, he was involved in the race to uncover the structure of DNA, but because he never considered only the structure of the three-helix and the four-helix, he had no chance of the truth.
He also proposed to determine the kinship between different species by comparing the homologous proteins of different species, which was widely used and became one of the most important methods for determining kinship.
Although Pauling was a scientist, he could not ignore the background of the times at that time - the smoke of World War II was still spreading.
The brutality of World War II, combined with the influence of his wife, turned him into a pacifist actor.
He also volunteered to join the Emergency Committee of Atomic Energy Scientists, led by Albert Einstein, as a reminder to the public of the dangers of nuclear weapons.
In addition, he actively participated in various anti-war movements, resolutely opposed any form of war, spared no effort in opposing nuclear tests, and devoted himself to the cause of world peace.
In January 1958, he presented to the Secretary-General of the United Nations a proposal for an international agreement to ban nuclear weapons testing, drafted by him, signed by more than 11,000 scientists from 49 countries.
His sharing of world peace earned him the Nobel Peace Prize of 1962.
Pauling thus became the only person to date to have won the Nobel Prize twice.
Commemorative photo after receiving the award
Pauling's desire for world peace, and his outspokenness, unyielding, and perseverance made him the spiritual leader of his students.
But it also made him the target of the media.
It is easy to fold, and his behavior and way of thinking have also attracted criticism for him.
After winning the Nobel Prize, his words and deeds were even more out of touch with public opinion, becoming more and more "pretentious and self-righteous".
He lashed out at politicians and opposed government policies.
The mainstream media in the United States looked down on his political views and dismissed the promulgation of the Nobel Peace Prize.
Even the journal of the American Chemical Society, of which he was chairman, mentioned in one corner of the newspaper that he had "won" the Nobel Prize.
Pauling became increasingly "absurd" in the eyes of others.
The dean of the California Institute of Technology and his fellow chemistry department have criticized him, saying that he is "deeply immersed in chemical biology, far from the fundamentals of physical chemistry."
Pauling eventually chose to leave, going to the Center for Research at Democracy College in Santa Barbara, California, and also in the Chemistry Department at the University of California, San Diego, and Stanford University, but felt unable to adapt.
The media called him "the tramp of academia" until he founded his own institute.
Pauling withstood injustice, but also really became absurd, and he began to devote himself to the study of "vitamin health".
He advocated the "orthomeric theory" every time he was a person: there is a positive molecular balance in the human body, and illness is both an orthomolecular imbalance.
Therefore, he advocated the use of large doses of vitamins or inorganic salts to correct the balance of orthomolecular molecules to achieve therapeutic purposes.
As small as colds, toothaches, diarrhea, to epilepsy, psychosis, allergic diseases, medicine to disease in addition to children are not deceived.
However, his conjecture lacked scientific evidence and did not conduct rigorous clinical trials.
At first, his confidence came from feeling "refreshed" after taking large doses of vitamins, and the public was naturally willing to believe the words of pauling, a double Nobel laureate.
This concept has had a remarkable impact through large-scale advertising in radio, popular publications and popular books.
However, neither the medical scientists nor the nutritionists of the Eight Classics agree with him.
The National Institutes of Mental Health Research Advisory Committee has also publicly stated that high-dose vitamin therapy can be harmful.
In fact, although vitamins play an important role in the growth, metabolism and development of the human body.
But excessive vitamin consumption can indeed lead to vitamin poisoning.
Pauling, on the other hand, did not agree with the accusations of others, believing that they were simply "thinking that they had taken possession of the truth."
Based on his years of research, he published the book Vitamin C and the Common Cold in 1970.
The book argues that taking 1,000 mg or more of vitamin C per day can prevent colds, and mentions that the dosage has been more than ten times higher than the adult dietary standard (60 mg).
However, the book was praised by readers and was named the best popular science book in the United States that year.
Subsequently, he collaborated with a medical doctor to publish the book "Cancer and Vitamin C".
The book recommends that each cancer patient take 10 grams (1 gram equals 1,000 mg) or more of vitamin C per day.
They believe that this simple approach will significantly improve the outcome of cancer treatment.
Later, his recommended dosage was changed again and again, even reaching hundreds of times the standard amount at one point.
How to Live Longer and Feel Better by Pauling
Pauling has also applied for funding from the National Cancer Institute eight times.
But his application was denied each time, and he had to rely on people who really wanted to save their lives from vitamins.
With his social influence, he has always adhered to his research results.
Regarding the debate over the dose of vitamins, neither Pauling nor the medical authorities convinced anyone.
Almost all of Pauling's views were rejected by the medical community, and the well-intentioned reminders from the medical community were consistently rejected by the public.
It wasn't until 1994, after Pauling's death, that the debate over the dose of vitamins was completely dead.
Although the soul of the vitamin army has passed away, the suggestion to increase vitamin C intake has been revived by some people with hearts.
They are used as a propaganda for vitamin supplements, and a jar of vitamin C for a few dollars can even buy hundreds of dollars.
But vitamin C can not be health care is difficult to say, but eating vitamin C indiscriminately even has side effects, excessive intake will lead to insomnia, convulsions, heat, headaches and other adverse symptoms, babies will appear rash.
If taken in large amounts, it may even cause scurvy after discontinuation.
Vitamins don't have the amazing features we want, but there are always people who choose to believe in vitamin health.
People's pursuit of health is beyond reproach, life is too precious, which makes many people willing to pay the price of life to fight.