Author: Wang Zijin (Professor, National College, Chinese Min University)
In 221 BC, King Yingzheng of Qin completed the great cause of unification and established the first highly centralized "great unification" authoritarian dynasty in Chinese history. The Qin Dynasty ruled briefly, but was overthrown in 207 BC by an armed uprising. Qin's short death, and his failure, in the long historical memory of later generations, have been given more significance as political lessons. However, when people look back at the history of Qin, they often trace back to the process of the Qin people from the founding of the country to the prosperity of the Qin people, and think about the quality and characteristics of Qin culture. Many scholars have conducted long-term and serious research on this, and have obtained multiple evidences such as archaeological excavations and harvests, and the relevant understanding has been deepened.
"Although in a remote country, it threatens the world"
The Qin people have an early history of animal husbandry as the main economic form. The "History of Qin Benji" says that the ancestors of the Qin people, Bai Feng, "tamed birds and beasts, and tamed birds and beasts", while the Book of Han was "cultivating grass, wood, birds and beasts" ("List of Hundred Officials and Secretaries of State"), "raising grass, wood, birds and beasts" ("Geography"), and the business objects included "grass and trees", reflecting that agriculture and forestry once had a very important position in the early economic forms of Qin. Qin, as a political entity, was officially recognized at two weeks' notice. The Qin people first opened up animal husbandry bases between Fengwei and Wei, and then contacted the grassland tribes to unite the forces of Xirong, and the national strength gradually became stronger, and later developed to the east, at Yong (present-day Fengxiang, Shaanxi), dingdu, became a western prince, and had diplomatic and war relations with the eastern countries. The economic progress of the Qin state has factors that make use of the more mature farming experience of the "Zhou Yumin". In the Qin Mugong era, "Yiguo Twelve, Open Land Thousands of Miles, Suiba Xirong", "Guangdi Yiguo, Eastern Service Qiangjin, Xiba Rongyi" ("History of Qin Benji")," was the rise achieved by using the central and western regions of Guanzhong as a base area.
The history books clearly record that the Shang martingale implemented the change of law and moved the qin capital from Yong to Xianyang. The Chronicle of Shang Jun records that Shang Martin served as Daliangzao, "lived for three years, as the palace court of The Ji Que in Xianyang, and Qin Ziyong migrated to the capital." "The establishment of the capital Xianyang is an event of great significance in the history of Qin, so it has formed a significant turning point in the historical process of the rise of the Qin state. Moving the capital to Xianyang has the intention of shifting the capital from the edge of the farming area to the center of the farming area. The capital, Xianyang, is a brilliant highlight in Qin's political history. The new law promulgated by Shangmartin has plans to expand farming, decrees to reward farming, and measures to protect farming. As a result, the Qin state achieved a new agricultural leap in the Qin Xiaogong-Shang martingale era. The planning center and command center that guide this historical change are in Xianyang. The vicinity of Xianyang has since become the center of gravity of Guanzhong's economy. The Book of History and Feng Zen says: "Ba, Chan, Changshui, Feng, Waterlogging, Jing, and Wei are not large rivers, and they are closer to Xianyang than the ,...... of the Mountain and River Shrine" indicating that the water resources in the "near Xianyang" area are rationally utilized. Guanzhong was then "known as land and sea, and anointed for Kyushu" (Hanshu Geography Chronicle), and was regarded as "the kingdom of Heavenly Palace" ("Shiji Liuhou Shijia").
Looking back at the history of the victory of the great powers during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the countries with a relatively significant historical influence are mostly located in the outer regions of the Central Plains where the degree of civilization is in a backward position. Its rapid rise has formed a strong impact on "China", that is, the middle reaches of the Yellow River, which has a long tradition of civilization. This historical and cultural phenomenon is what is said in "Xunzi Wangba": "Although in a remote country, it threatens the world, and the five uncles are also." "It is a country that is all secluded and ugly, threatening the world and strengthening China." Although the "Five Powers" have all risen in the "secluded" land where the process of civilization was originally relatively backward, they can influence the world with the emerging cultural strength and shake the Central Plains. The "Five Hegemons" refer to different theories, but if according to the "White Tiger Pass" about the "Five Uncles", it includes Qin Mugong, that is, the so-called "Qin Mu Hegemony".
In the late Warring States period, among the seven heroes, Qi, Chu, Zhao, and Qin were the strongest. By the end of the 3rd century BC, the military might of the Qin state was already overwhelming. After Qin Xiaogong and Shang Martingale changed the law, King Huiwen of Qin annexed Bashu, and Empress Xuan and King Zhaoxiang of Qin defeated Yiqu to achieve control over Shangjun and Beidi, which greatly expanded Qin's territory, and in addition to the saying that "only Qin Xiong Tianxia" ("Shi Ji Lu Zhonglian Zou Yang Lie Biography"), it was also known as "Qin Land Half Heaven" ("History of Zhang Yilie Biography"). The upper ruling clique of the Qin State could control the space across multiple latitudes, and realized the conditions for the simultaneous management of nomadic areas, agricultural and animal husbandry areas, millet farming areas, wheat cultivation areas, and rice cultivation areas. This was the early stage of the exercise of comprehensive administrative leadership over the different ecological zones and economic zones of the unified dynasty. At that time, none of the six eastern countries had the conditions to engage in such political practice.
Qin annexed the world, "like a storm and thunderstorm, blitzing the Central Plains"
Regarding the situation of Qin unification, Zhai Bozan described it as "like a storm and thunderstorm, blitzing the Central Plains", proving that "any subjective attempt is not enough to reverse the wheel of history" (Zhai Bozan: History of Qin and Han, Peking University Press, 1983 edition, p. 8). In Qin's "unification", some scholars prefer to use the term "annexation". Paying attention to the "wheel of history" theory, we should understand the common tendency of social consciousness at that time to yearn for "the world" and "fixed on one" (Mencius Liang HuiwangShang). The "Ram Biography and Hidden Year of the Common Era" was first mentioned in the "Great Unification". Other schools other than Confucianism also have similar cultural manifestations. For example, "Zhuangzi Tiandao": "The emperor's fortune is lucky and has nothing to accumulate, so the world returns." "The virtue of the Emperor's Son of Heaven also ... The fame of the great name is also the world. He also said, "One heart is determined and the world is king." "Mozi Shang Tongzhong": "Choose the wise and wise people of the world, and establish themselves as the Son of Heaven, so that they can engage in the righteousness of the world." "Xunzi Bugou" also says that "the total need of the world, the rule of the people in the sea." As the master of the ideas of the Dharma, the phrase "Tianxia" in the book "Han Feizi" appeared the most frequently, reaching 267 times. For example, "Xie Lao" "Entering the World", "Playing Evil" "Strong Kuang Tianxia", "Making Points" "Ordering And Prohibiting the World" and so on. The "Lü's Spring and Autumn" written in Qindi can be seen in the "world" 281 times.
The realization of the unification of Qin was called "Six Kings Bi, Four Seas and One" (Du Mu: "Afang Gongfu"). In fact, the spatial scope of Qin Shi Huang's completion of unification was not limited to the area ruled by the former Warring States Seven Xiongs in the Yellow River Basin and the Yangtze River Basin, but also included the conquest of the Pearl River Basin in Lingnan and the "Northwest Repulsion of the Xiongnu" ("History of Qin Shi Huang Benji"). According to the Chronicle of the Chronicle of the White Qi Dynasty, "(Wang Qi) Was the King of Jingjing, and even pingjingdi was a county, because of the southern conquest of the King of Baiyue". Judging from the order of the account, the matter preceded Wang Ben and Li Xin's "breaking the Yan and Qidi" and "Qin Shi Huang twenty-six years, and the whole world". The expedition to South Vietnam was one of the strategic themes of Qin unification. And Meng Tian ran the northern side, and "the Xiongnu were more than 700 miles" ("History of Qin Shi Huang Benji"). The progress of the north and south directions has made the territory of the Qin Dynasty far exceed the sum of the Qin mainland and the homeland of the "Six Kings".
The reason for the unification of Qin
In the discussion of Qin culture, it is inevitable to introduce such a question: Why did the Qin state win in the historical competition of the Seven Heroes of the Warring States? Why did the Qin state and not other countries complete the historical process of reunification?
How should we understand the reasons for the unification of the Qin people? According to Qin Shi Huang's own propaganda, he said that "the princes of Virtue and Harmony" "cooked and raped", and also said: "The widows are in the form of a squat, the soldiers are rebellious, the spirit of the Laizong Temple, the six kings are xianfu qigu, and the world is determined." ("History of Qin Shi Huang Benji") prides itself on justice to "curse riots", and at the same time relies on "the spirit of the zongmiao temple". And Jia Yi's "Theory of Passing the Qin Dynasty" and "Continuing the Sixth Emperor's Yu Lie" also affirms the historical role of the previous monarchs of the Qin Dynasty. Li Si's summary highlights the rationality of his policies and tactics: "Respectfully obey the decree, conspire against the courtiers, make the princes of the capital, make the princes, the yin repair soldiers, the political and religious, the officials and fighters, the honorable heroes, and the grand lords" ("History of Li Silie").
Sima Qian's "Records of History" was once summed up as "Mandate of Heaven", and there is also a saying of "if Heaven helps": "It is the good use of soldiers, and there is also the Mandate of Heaven." (Zhou Benji) "On the virtue and righteousness of Qin is not as good as the tyrannical one of Lu Wei, and the soldiers of Qin are not as strong as those of the Three Jins, but they are not bound to be dangerous and solid, and they are not bound to be in danger, and Gai Ruotian helps." (Chronology of the Six Kingdoms)
As for the reasons why Qin was able to achieve unification, there have been many scholars in recent times who have discussed it. Some scholars believe that the thorough reform of Qin and the advanced social system are the main reasons. Li Xueqin, who was in charge of the finalization of the "Bamboo Jane of the Sleeping Tiger Di Qin Tomb", presided over the collation of the Zhangjiashan Han Jian and conducted a comparative study of the Qin law and the Han law, once pointed out: "The discovery and research of the Sleeping Tiger Di Zhu Jian Qin Law shows a fairly typical scene of slavery relations. "Some works believe that the social system of the Qin is more advanced than that of the Six Kingdoms, and the author cannot agree with this view, but judging from the fact that the Qin people quite commonly retained barbaric slavery relations, the facts are rather the opposite." (Eastern Zhou and Qin Dynasty Civilization, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2007, pp. 290-291)
For the specific conditions for Qin Fuguo to strengthen the army and finally unify, it is possible to analyze at the technical level. The advantages of the Qin state in water conservancy management, transportation construction, mechanical invention, and power revolution have achieved the rise of the country's comprehensive strength and become an important factor in military competition (Wang Zijin: "Investigation of the Technical Aspects of the Reasons for Qin Unification", Social Science Front, No. 9, 2009). The progress of management methods and the popularization of iron tools also show a sense of transcendence of the six eastern countries. Qin's academic and cultural tendencies pay special attention to the characteristics of practical learning (Wang Zijin: "The Practical Wind of Qin Culture", Guangming Daily, July 15, 2013), is related to this historical phenomenon. Qin's superiority at the technical level enabled the Qin people to "chase after the north and ambush millions of corpses" in the war of annexation, "slaughter the world, divide the rivers and mountains", and finally "vibrate the long strategy and yu Yu Nei", and "perform the supreme and make the Liuhe" (Jia Yi: "On Passing the Qin"). Of course, as some scholars have pointed out, "the autocratic monarchy of the Qin State has developed a considerable degree of political control and social mobilization ability earlier" (Yan Buke: "Draft History of the Political Evolution of Scholars", Peking University Press, 1996 edition, p. 226), can "effectively regulate administrative order and official behavior" and "ensure the precise operation of administrative machines" (Yan Buke: "Peaks and Troughs: Political Civilization of the Southern and Northern Dynasties of the Qin, Han, Wei, and Jin Dynasties", Peking University Press, 2009 edition, p. 56). It is also an important reason. Judging from the self-propaganda rhetoric of the Qin rulers, a number of measures "made the Qin state the most politically lucid of the Seven Warring States" (Chen Suzhen: "Spring and Autumn" and Han Dao: A Study of the Politics and Political Culture of the Two Han Dynasties," Zhonghua Bookstore, 2011 edition, p. 10), and this is an important condition for being able to "use wu wei to the side, vibrate the four poles, and destroy the six kings" ("History of Qin Shi Huang Benji").
"Two thousand years of government, Qin zheng also"
The unification of Qin is a major event in Chinese history, as well as in the history of the East and even the history of the world. For the formation of the Chinese nation, for the development of Chinese culture with Han culture as the main body later, and for the stereotyping of the unified political pattern, the creation of Qin has a very important significance. The Qin Dynasty implemented the county system and realized the direct control of the central government over the localities. The emergence of the imperial system and the bureaucracy is also an important invention to promote the process of political history. The qin shi huang era achieved a high degree of centralization. The imperial family, the generals, the harem, and the rich clan could not infringe on or shake the authority of the emperor. The only one in charge of the supreme power in the world is the emperor. "Fu Qizhuo is supreme, not with the people and other yi, the only son of heaven and one ear." (Zhang Taiyan: Records of Qin Zheng) Unlike Qin Shi Huang's optimistic vision of "The Second and Third Dynasties to the Ten Thousand Dynasties, Passed on Infinitely" ("History of Qin Shi Huang Benji"), Qin's rule did not last long, but some important systems of the Qin Dynasty, especially the system of the emperor's exclusive dignity, became the paradigm of political history for more than two thousand years. Later dynasties had different forms of administration, but the absolutist nature of imperial supremacy did not change. The Qin political style lasted for a long time, had a long-term normative effect on later China, and also had an impact on the political pattern of the Eastern world, such as Mao Zedong's poem "Hundred generations have practiced Qin political law". Tan Sitong fiercely criticized the "tyranny" of monarchy since Qin, saying that "therefore, we should think that the government of the past two thousand years, the Qin government, are all thieves" (Tan Sitong: Renxue).
The Qin Dynasty's experimental form of economic management under new historical conditions deserves attention. The unity of money and the unity of weights and measures have created the conditions for economic progress. Other economic measures have both gains and losses in their implementation. The planning and organization of large-scale civil engineering projects such as the Great Wall Project, the Chi Dao and Straight Road Project, and the Afang Palace Project, which were presided over by the central government in the Qin Dynasty, showed an unprecedented improvement in the level of economic management and also showed a considerable degree of administrative efficiency. The militarized system of economic management in the Qin Dynasty was characterized by a tendency towards harsh policies. The shortcomings of the regional economic policy of enslaving Kanto in Guanzhong also provide profound historical lessons for future generations. Qin's use of military personnel as officials inevitably made it easy for administrative organs at all levels to form the characteristics of totalitarian dictatorship, and administrative and economic management thus had a militarized style, and the stage of military control that should end soon after reunification was actually extended indefinitely, and finally led to tyranny.
The autocratic rule of the Qin Dynasty showed a high degree of centralization, and its ideological and cultural policies also had a corresponding style. Although the Qin Dynasty did not rule for a long time, the cultural policies it pursued had prescriptive significance for future generations in several aspects. "Book with text" was originally a cultural ideal put forward by Confucius. Zi Si's "Zhongyong" quotes Confucius: "Today get off the same track, the book is the same text, and the line is the same." "Book with text" has become a symbol of cultural unity. However, in the time of Confucius, according to Confucianism, those who have their own position have no virtue, and those who have their virtue have no place, and "books and texts" are actually just a kind of utopia. During the Warring States period, the situation of "books" not "identical texts" was more serious. As Xu Shen of the Eastern Han Dynasty said in his "Commentaries on the Interpretation of Texts and Characters", "the princes are powerful in government, not unified with the king", so the ritual music texts were destroyed, and the world was divided into seven kingdoms, "words are different, words are different". Therefore, after the unification of Qin, with "Qin Wen" as the base point, he wanted to make the world's characters "the same". Although the Qin Dynasty's "book and text" did not achieve full success, it was able to put forward such a plan for cultural progress at that time and began to practice, it should be said that it was already a pioneering undertaking worthy of recognition.
The Qin Dynasty sought ideological and cultural unification by pursuing relevant policies through tough authoritarian means. Qin Shi Huang's burning of books was a continuation of Shang Martin's act of "burning the poems" and "books and ming decrees" ("Han Feizi Heshi"), that is, attempting to implement compulsory cultural unification with Qin culture as the main body. With regard to the doctrine of the so-called "difficult to apply" ("Shi ji feng zen book") and "not useful" ("Shi Ji Shi Huang Ben Ji"), he did not hesitate to use extremely cruel means. For this cultural policy, the intellectual class of the Eastern countries resisted it with the attitude of "I am useless learning" and "Qin is not my friend" (Zizhi Tongjian, vol. VII, Qin Ji II).
We may not fully agree with the opinions expressed by Qian Mu, but we may still be able to provide inspiration for pioneering ideas: "The outline of China's territory has been established since the Qin Dynasty. In recent times, Qin Zheng has been denounced as autocratic. However, according to the facts, the Qin people's efforts in creating a new situation for China's reunification were also necessary for the situation at that time. (Qian Mu: History of the Qin and Han Dynasties, Sanlian Bookstore, 2004, p. 20)
World influence of Qin history
Li Xueqin's "Eastern Zhou and Qin Dynasty Civilization" divides China in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty into seven cultural circles: the Central Plains, the North, Qilu, Chu, Wuyue, Bashu Dian, and Qin. Regarding the "Qin cultural circle" among them, the commentators wrote: "The Qin state in Guanzhong is long in the vast northwest region, and it may be appropriate to call it a Qin cultural circle. The Qin people arose in the homeland of the Western Zhou Capital, forming a culture with a unique style. Although there are contacts with the Central Plains, its own characteristics are still very obvious. Regarding the cultural trends of the late Warring States period as for the Qin and Han dynasties, commentators point out that the "spread of Qin culture" is a characteristic of the era, "the annexation of Qin countries and the establishment of a unified new dynasty, so that Qin culture became the basis of the later brilliant Han Dynasty culture." The unification of the Qin "was an important turning point in the history of Chinese culture," and after that, the Han Dynasty created a brilliant civilization whose influence", "the scope is by no means limited to eastern Asia, and we can only value its significance and value from the height of world history." (Eastern Zhou and Qin Civilization, pp. 10-11, p. 294) To understand the significance of the influence of Qin culture, we should pay attention to examining it "from the height of world history."
There should be no doubt that the Qin people accepted the cultural influence from the northwest. King Mu of Zhou traveled westward, and it is said that when he arrived at the kingdom of the Queen Mother of the West, the one who drove the carriage and horse for him was the ancestor of the Qin people who was "fortunate" by "good imperial" ("History of Qin Benji"). The success of the early Qin horse breeding industry should have borrowed from the technology of the steppe nomads. Some of the bronzes are identified as Qin ware, and some of them are "different from common Chinese bronzes, and some scholars have compared them with some artifacts in Central Asia." In fact, the academic community has already noticed this artifact, thinking that it may "imitate the style of Central Asia". Some scholars have correctly pointed out that we should attach importance to the cultural connection between Qin and the northwest, and attach importance to the connection between Qin culture and Central Asian culture. However, the idea that the implementation of the county system may come from foreign cultural influences may still need to be seriously demonstrated. During the Warring States period, not only the Qin state, but also many other princes also implemented the county system. Li Xueqin pointed out that "the county system has sprouted in the Spring and Autumn Period, especially the 'county', whose original form can be traced back to the Western Zhou Dynasty. By the Warring States period, the county system was being implemented in all countries" (Eastern Zhou and Qin Civilization, pp. 146, pp. 289-290).
Some people believe that MengTian resisted the Xiongnu and "expelled the Northern Hu", which eventually made the Xiongnu unable to go south and had to move west, affecting the distribution pattern of the world's ethnic groups in the future. Chen Xujing, examining the relationship between the Central Plains peoples and the Xiongnu in the 3rd century BC, wrote: "Some European scholars have pointed out that the construction of the Great Wall in China was a major reason for the decline of the Roman Empire. They thought that china had built the Great Wall so that the Xiongnu could not develop to the south, but later to the West. In the 4th and 5th centuries AD, a part of the Huns came to Europe to attack the Goths and attack the Roman Empire, which led to the decline of the Roman Empire. "The Great Wall is not necessarily a major cause of the decline of the Roman Empire, but the Great Wall cannot be said to be completely unrelated to the decline of the Roman Empire." (Chen Xujing: Draft History of the Xiongnu, Chinese University Press, 2007, pp. 184-185) The historical trend of the Xiongnu migration to Europe, some scholars believe that since Qin Shi Huang ordered Mengtian to run the "north side" (Bi xin: "The Great Wall, the Xiongnu and the Fall of the Roman Empire", "Historical Grand View Garden", No. 3, 1985). Some scholars have highlighted the role of Qin Zhidao, which is also operated by Mengtian (Xu Junfeng, "Qin Zhidao Road Trend and Cultural Influence", Shaanxi Normal University Press, 2018 edition, pp. 158-226). The deepening of relevant understanding may also require more academic arguments.
In the Qin Dynasty, Xu Wei crossed to the east, "to get the plains guangze, to stop the king from coming" ("History of Huainan Hengshan Column Biography"). The new and suitable living space chosen by the Later Han Dynasty is presumed to be an "overseas" "continent" related to "倭". This may be seen as a historical sign of the initial opening of the Oriental Route. The discovery of half a dollar in Sri Lanka ([Sri Lanka] Chadima Bogahawata, Koshali Kakurandala: An Overview of Ancient Chinese Coins in Sri Lanka, Journal of The Baise Academy, No. 6, 2017), may serve as a cultural evidence of the early opening of the South China Sea Route. Understanding and illustrating the world influence of Qin culture is also a theme that should be paid attention to in the study of Silk Road history.
During the Western Han Dynasty, the Xiongnu and The Western Regions still called the Central Plains people "Qin people", which are all recorded in the Chronicle of history, the Biography of the Great Wan, the Biography of the Xiongnu, and the Book of Han and the Transmission of the Western Regions. The eastern Han Dynasty's Western Regions used the title "Qin" and is found in the GuiziZuo General Liu Pingguo As Guancheng Recitation. The abbreviation of the shoulder water Jin Guanhan can also be seen in the "Famous Book of The Hu Riding Qin Rider" (73EJT1:158), and the identity of the "Qin Rider" is also worthy of attention. These cultural signs all show that the influence of Qin culture on a wide area outside Middle-earth has formed a deep historical memory. The title of "Qin people" in the distance is a cultural commemoration of the glorious history of Qin.
(This article is based on the general preface of the "Qin History and Qin Culture Research Series" organized by the Counselor Office of the Shaanxi Provincial Government and to be published by Northwest University Press))
Guangming Daily (2021-08-02 14 edition)
Source: Guangming Network - Guangming Daily