Abstract: The Ding worry system is a mandatory regulation regulating officials' service and filial piety, and is one of the most distinctive, long-lasting, and most influential traditional Chinese political systems. The ethical basis of the Dingyou system is filial piety and loyalty, which is essentially the institutional carrier of loyalty and filial piety and home-country isomorphism in traditional Chinese society. In traditional China, home-state isomorphism is not only a value advocacy, but also an institutional structure. The Dingyou system is precisely such a system of home-state isomorphism, which makes the family and the state homogeneous in structure and function by eliminating the boundaries between individual behavior and official duties, private life and public affairs. In essence, the Dingyou system, like the Zhulian system, the armor protection system, and the shade system, is an institutional arrangement that strengthens the isomorphism of the home and the country, and ultimately it is all aimed at maintaining the hierarchical political ruling order with imperial power as the core and the privileged interests of the bureaucratic ruling class represented by the emperor.
Keywords: traditional politics, Ding worry system, loyalty and filial piety, home and country isomorphism
The Ding worry system is one of the most lasting and widely influential important systems in traditional Chinese society. It originated in the pre-Qin and finally The Qing Dynasty, and continued through almost the entire traditional Chinese society, including the Yuan and Qing dynasties established by the foreign tribes at that time. The study of Ding You, mainly concentrated in the field of history, focuses on the origin and evolution of the Ding Worry system, the main content and form of the Ding Worry system, the characteristics and similarities and differences of the Ding Worry system in previous dynasties, the role of the Ding Worry system in the political struggle of the court, and so on. In fact, the implementation of the Ding worry system is mainly aimed at imperial court officials, which is a political system that regulates and restricts the behavior of officials, and in addition to strengthening filial piety and family affection, it also performs important political functions. On the basis of an overview of the basic significance and historical origins of the Ding worry system, this article will focus on the important role it played in shaping the traditional Chinese political form of "loyalty and filial piety" and "home-country isomorphism" from the perspective of political science.
<h1 class="pgc-h-arrow-right" data-track="17" >, Ding worry system</h1>
Ding You, also known as "Ding Yan" and "Shou Xiao", refers to the custom of mourning due to the death of his parents and other immediate family members, and later specifically refers to the mourning activities of imperial court officials who leave their posts due to the death of their parents. "Ding" can be used as a verb in Old Chinese, with the meaning of "coinciding", "encountering" or "just in time"; "worry" here refers to "funeral", especially the death of direct relatives such as parents or grandparents and the consequent funeral activities. The Book of Shang already has a record of "mourning" as "worry": "Wang Zhao is worried, and the three gods of bright yin are bright and yin." Some people have verified that the earliest record of the official Ding You is from the "Biography of Yuan Yue" in volume 75 of the Book of Jin: "(Yue Zhi) began to join the army for Xie Xuan, met by Xuan, and Ding You resigned from his post." ”
The Ding worry system is a mandatory provision that regulates officials' service to funerals and filial piety. It is generally believed that as a mandatory norm formally established in the form of national legal provisions, the Ding worry system began in the Han Dynasty. "In the feudal legislation after the Han Dynasty, the funeral of 'Ding You' was included in the relevant legal rules, and all kinds of acts that violated the provisions of 'Ding Wu' were listed as 'filial piety' crimes and severely punished by the criminal law." After the Han Dynasty, the Ding worry system was practiced, and with the demise of the last autocratic dynasty, the Qing court, the Ding worry system also came to an end, and finally completely withdrew from the stage of Chinese history. In the long historical process that has lasted for more than two thousand years, the legal provisions related to Ding Wu, the specific content and form of Ding Wu, the applicable objects of the Ding Worry system, and the role and practical consequences of Ding Wu in real political life will inevitably have obvious differences in different dynasties and different periods of the same dynasty. However, as an important political system in traditional Chinese society, we can still summarize some typical characteristics of the Ding worry system of general significance.
The main object of application of the Ding worry system was the officials at all levels of the imperial court, from the current prime minister of the dynasty who was a very popular minister to the county magistrate at the end of the official position, all of whom were subject to the compulsory constraints of the Ding worry system. Starting from the written Chinese civilization, "filial piety" is the most important core value of traditional Chinese culture. Serving funerals and filial piety for deceased parents and other immediate family members is a long-standing traditional Chinese ritual system, known as "funeral rites" or "fierce ceremonies". It had elaborate and complex etiquette requirements during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. According to the traditional filial piety and funeral rites, all people from the Son of Heaven to the common people should wear filial piety and keep the system when their parents and other elderly relatives die. However, as a mandatory state system, the Ding worry system has specific application objects, it generally does not include ordinary civilians, but mainly targets civil and military officials, especially the civil officials of the imperial court. For incumbent civilian officials, no matter how high their official titles and titles, once their parents or grandparents die, they must truthfully report to the imperial court, and take the initiative to request to resign from their current various positions and return to their original hometown to serve as mourners and filial piety.
Judging from the ancient literature, the pre-Qin period formed a consensus of "three years of mourning, since the death of Tianzi" and "the death of parents, three years of not engaging in politics" ("Etiquette Ji · The Royal System"). For example, Confucius explicitly advocated that "three-year mourning" is "the universal mourning of the whole world", and there are also a lot of discussions about "three-year mourning" in the Book of Rites. However, the "three years" of mourning mentioned in the pre-Qin classics are actually not an accurate concept of time, and according to the records of the Book of Rites, the actual time of the so-called "three-year mourning" is only twenty-five months. The three-year mourning ceremony recorded in the pre-Qin literature gradually became the official legal system of the country after the Han Dynasty. Most of the fierce ritual codes of the later Han Dynasties clearly stipulate the time for officials to worry about Ding. The nominal time is three years, but the actual time is usually twenty-five to twenty-seven months. For example, in the Tang Dynasty, "the funeral of one's parents is in the twenty-seventh month of the Fa-rectification, and within the twenty-fifth month is the right funeral, and if one is relieved of obedience, it is not filial piety, and the disciple is three years" (Tang Law Neglect Discussion, vol. 10). Another example is, "In the Song Dynasty, according to the five-service system, when parents died, they should be served and decayed, and the period was three years." One hundred days after the death of their parents are called weeping, thirteen months are called Xiaoxiang, twenty-five months are called Daxiang, and twenty-seven months are called Zen Sacrifice." The Yuan Dynasty canon also clearly stipulates: "Three years of mourning, ancient and modern general system (three years of reality and twenty-seven months - original note)." In the future, in addition to the cowardly Xue personnel (Janissaries - the author's note) and the conscription officers, the rest of the officials, the death of their parents, the death of Ding, the final system of Xu Xushi, will return to this case. (YuanDian Zhang, vol. 11, "Official's Ministry五·丁忧)" In the Ming Dynasty, "the system of obedience begins with the day of mourning, and does not count the leap twenty-seven months as full, and does not remove the leap person to ask questions." If you keep less in January, you will keep more in January and avoid investigation" (Wanli Inscribed Edition "Official's Office"). The Qing Dynasty's Great Qing Laws also clearly stipulates: "Those who abide by the internal and external officials... It begins with the smell of the day of the mourning month, not counting leaps, twenty-seven months, and the service is full of repetition. ”
During the period of Ding Worry, in addition to having to perform duties and filial piety, the daily life and social interaction of officials such as clothing, food, housing, and transportation were also subject to a series of constraints. Most of these constraints on the observance of official funerals have been clearly stipulated in the pre-Qin texts, and the Ding worry system in later generations has been generally implemented. First, in terms of clothing, officials must wear special mourning clothes. According to the degree of intimacy, mourning clothes are divided into five categories, namely chopping decline, Qi decline, large gong, small gong, and hemp. Among them, the decapitation is the highest level of mourning clothes among the five suits, made of simple burlap cloth without any modification, and the decapitation must be served for three years. Children are filial piety for their parents and princes for the Son of Heaven, and they must wear it to show their affection and righteousness. "He who is gracious to him, he who serves is heavy; therefore he who is the Father has been decrepit for three years, and he who is gracious is also a gracious one." The rule within the door is to cover the righteousness; the rule outside the door is to break the grace of righteousness. The father is the king, and the one who respects the same, the noble and the noble, and the righteous are also great. Therefore, the king also fell for three years, and the righteous ruler also. Second, in terms of diet and living, it is necessary to have coarse tea and light rice, prohibit big fish and meat, and not eat, drink, and have fun." The loss of parents, the decline of the crown rope, three days and porridge, Three months and Mu, thirteen months and practice the crown, three years and auspicious. Finally, in terms of social interaction, there are also many restrictions, such as not marrying, not taking concubines, not entertaining, not rushing to take examinations, not visiting relatives, and so on. The various qing rules and precepts during the Ding Dynasty have been recorded in detail in successive dynasties. For example, Wu Rongguang of the Qing Dynasty has a very detailed record of the various funerals of the Qing Dynasty: "Those who mourn for three years, shave their hair in a hundred days, be benevolent, quit the examination, do not drink alcohol, do not eat meat, do not go inside, do not enter the public door, and do not have auspicious deeds." "Five punishments belong to three thousand, and the sin is greater than filial piety." (Filial Piety Sutra · Punishment Chapter) Since filial piety is a crime, those who do not filial piety should be punished by law. Ding Worry is a system of filial piety, and violating Ding Worry is also a crime of "filial piety" and is bound to be punished accordingly. In the pre-Qin Dynasty, although Ding Wu was already an important ritual system and was widely practiced in practice, there is no record of officials being punished by the state for violating the funeral system, and there is no legal provision in this regard. After the Han and Tang Dynasties, Ding Wu officially rose to the legal system of the state, becoming a mandatory constraint to regulate the funeral behavior of officials, and violations of the Ding Wu system also became criminal acts and had to be severely punished by law. Tang dynasty law clearly stipulated that officials who violated the relevant regulations of Ding Wu would be punished by exile and imprisonment. "Those who hear of the death of their parents and husbands, those who do not raise up mourners, flow for two thousand miles." If the mourning system is not over, the release is obedient, and if he forgets to mourn and rejoice, he will be apprenticed for three years"; "If his parents are lost, and those who have children and brothers and have different wealth, they will be apprenticed for one year"; "Those who marry their parents and husbands who live in mourning will be apprenticed for three years" (Tang Law Shu Shu, vols. 10, 12, and 13). The Punishment for Violating Ding Wu's Regulations in the Song Dynasty was similar to that imposed by the Tang Dynasty. The punishment of the Yuan Dynasty seems to be lighter than that of the previous dynasty, and the 50th Criminal Law of the Yuan Dynasty stipulates: "The officials of various positions do not run to the funeral when they die, the staff is sixty-seven, the first rank is demoted to the second class, and the miscellaneous posts are described." He who has not been buried and sent to the official, flogged forty-seven, demoted to the first rank, and finally made a daily statement. If there is a sin and a false claim to be mourned, the staff is eighty-seven, and the name is not omitted. Pro-Jiu did not say that the beginning of death, flogging fifty-seven, xie see ren, miscellaneous duties. Whoever does not worry about his parents, sin is the same as not running away. In the early Ming Dynasty, officials who violated the Ding worry system, such as concealment and bereavement, were mainly punished with cane punishment and dismissal for the people, but in the later period, the punishment was aggravated, in addition to the cane punishment and dismissal, the "charging army" of the "five punishments" was second only to the death penalty: "Parents who saw the dead falsely claimed that the deceased sent a single stone and other places to charge the army" (Ming Yingzong Records, vol. 294). During the Qing Dynasty, those who violated the regulations of DingYou officials were usually punished, dismissed from their posts, and punished with canes. For example, the Great Qing Law column stipulates: "If the parents of officials die, they should worry about Ding, falsely claim the death of their grandparents, uncles and uncles, and those who are not worried, a hundred rods, and a dismissal." The same sin is the same as the one who claims to be mourned without mourning, or the old mourner who is called a new mourner. There are circumventors, from its heavy arguments. If the mourning system is not over, mourn the servants, the staff is eighty. When the lawsuit is known and heard, each is guilty of the same crime. Those who do not know, do not sit. His eunuchs who are far away from the ding, starting with the smell of the mourning moon and the day, seize the love of the reviver, do not hesitate to this law. ”
As an important political system, in addition to the provisions of the provisions of the law, there must be specialized agencies to implement the system. The Ding Worry system is mainly used to regulate and restrain the filial piety behavior of officials, so usually the civilian official Ding You is responsible for the official department, while the military officer Ding You is controlled by the military department. Officials usually had specialized agencies within themselves that were responsible for handling the affairs of officials and officials, such as the Ming Dynasty's officials' inspectors in charge of Ding's affairs. However, some dynasties also had special agencies responsible for the official Ding You, for example, the Song Dynasty officials' Ding Worry affairs were under the responsibility of the Taichang Li Yuan. Officials' worries include many links, from the "hearing and mourning" of reporting the death news of their parents and other deaths, to the "investigation and cooperation" of verifying the death news and the "inscription" of asking the official Ding You, to the "explanation" and "resignation" of the ding wu officials after handling the resignation procedures, as well as the monitoring of the behavior of officials and the punishment of illegal behavior, which involve various departments of the government, such as personnel, administration, supervision, and justice, and constitute a complex and complete system of political functions. Every official is under the control and regulation of this Ding Worry system, and not only will explicit acts that violate the Ding Worry system be punished, but some hidden acts will also be punished accordingly. For example, the "Old Tang Dynasty Book• Bai Juyi Biography" records that the great Tang Dynasty poet Bai Juyi "died because his mother fell from seeing flowers fall into the well, and Juyi wrote poems "Viewing Flowers" and "New Well", which hurt the famous religion... Relegated to the History of Jiangzhou Thorn". Bai Juyi's mother died because of the flower appreciation falling into the well, and during the three years of Ding You, Bai Juyi wrote two poems entitled "Flower Appreciation" and "New Well", which were denounced by his political enemies as violating the system of Ding Worry. As a result, Bai Juyi was demoted by the emperor from the crown prince zuo Shanzan of the imperial court to Sima of Jiangzhou after the end of his reign. It was during Sima Ren in Jiangzhou that Bai Juyi, who deeply felt that "he was also a fallen man at the end of the world", wrote the famous article "Pipa Xing" throughout the ages.
Officials hold the public power of the state and perform important functions of maintaining social and political order, and once some government officials who hold important powers leave their posts, the corresponding public functions cannot be exercised normally. Without a set of emergency remedies, the normal functioning of the state apparatus would be seriously affected and the political life of society would be chaotic. Therefore, the two systems of Ding Worry's avoidance and seizure of emotion have become an important part of the Ding Worry system.
Ding You's recusal refers to a group of officials who are of particular importance to maintaining state power, usually military attachés in the military, who are not bound by Ding You's regulations, and do not need to leave their posts to return to their hometowns to observe filial piety when their parents and other close relatives die. Relevant studies have shown that "the Ding worry system of military attaches was basically in a state of abolition after the Song and Yuan dynasties, and it has never been able to form a permanent and coercive rule like that of civilian officials." The Ming Dynasty's prohibition of the military attaché Ding To guard the system was, on the one hand, the natural result of historical development, and on the other hand, the result of the Hongwu Emperor's consideration of the political and military situation at that time. Although this was an expedient measure, the Ming Dynasty strictly adhered to the system of the Hongwu Emperor, and the military ministers did not worry about it. ...... Under the Qing Dynasty, the Shunzhi Dynasty and the middle and early Kangxi Dynasties, the military attaches were not worried." In addition, in the special political environment, other groups of officials who play a key role in the stability of the regime can also avoid Worrying. For example, in the first year of the Xianping Dynasty of the Song Dynasty, the emperor "Zhaochuan Gorge, Guangnan, and Fujian Road officials Ding Worried, were not allowed to leave office." The reason why the officials of these three places were able to avoid the constraints of Ding Worry was "because in the early Song Dynasty, there were few and many road officials in Chuanxia, Guangnan, and Fujian, and there were not enough officials, so the imperial court generally implemented this flexible and flexible policy on the Ding worry system of local officials in these three roads."
The revival of emotion is the more common Ding worry supporting system. As the name suggests, the seizure of affection is the special needs of the imperial court, depriving certain important officials of the mourning of leaving their posts and filial piety when their parents and other close relatives are lost, not allowing officials to abandon their posts and return to their hometowns to manage the funeral, or terminating the period of worry for officials in advance to return to the imperial court to perform their duties. There are usually three situations in which a revolt is taken: first, the cabinet ministers who assist the emperor, who hold the power of the central cardinal and have no suitable replacement after they leave their posts. In this case, the emperor would often exercise the power of affection for the heavy courtiers of these courtiers. Second, when the country encounters emergencies, especially crisis events such as war, the emperor will also exercise the right to seize affection against those ministers and generals who hold great military and political power, so that they can continue to perform their duties. This kind of situation is often called "Golden Revolution" in history. The third is the so-called "camp seeking affection", which is actually a distortion of the Ding worry system. It specifically refers to the fact that in order to maintain their own position and interests, officials use improper means to circumvent the conventional constraints of the Ding worry system, so as to achieve the purpose of not leaving their posts or ending their filial piety early and reinstating officials. It has been quite common since the emergence of the Ding worry system, and in fact it is also a conventional system that has always accompanied Ding worry. Some experts have calculated, "In the Ming dynasty, there were 19 cabinet ministers in charge of the ding, and 11 people who won the love affair... Among them, 10 people from Yongle to Chenghua Dynasty were worried, and all of them won love. It can be seen that at this stage, the cabinet has become a habitual case. ...... After the abolition of the phase, the right to write the six parts. The six Shangshu are responsible for the affairs of the world, and their authority is important. In the Ming Dynasty, Shang Shu Ding worried 41 times and won 15 times. ...... Yongle to Tianshun, all of them seized affection, and after that, most of the Shang Shu seized affection for the military department." It can be seen from this that the removal of duties and the revival of love are two basic provisions that complement each other in the Ding worry system.
From the original intention of the system design, if Ding Youshou filial piety mainly reflects the personal affection and filial piety of individual officials to their elders, then the revival of affection mainly reflects the loyalty and obedience of officials to the imperial court and the country. Therefore, as a traditional political system that has lasted for thousands of years, the Ding worry system is actually the institutional carrier of the unity of loyalty and filial piety and the isomorphism of home and country in traditional Chinese society. To profoundly understand the essence and significance of the Ding worry system, it is necessary to further understand the internal relationship between the two traditional core values of loyalty and filial piety.
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Filial piety and loyalty, which are the ethical basis of the Ding worry system, are the core values advocated by the Chinese nation after entering the era of civilization to maintain the basic social and political order, the value of filial piety is mainly used to maintain the social order with the blood patriarchy as the core, and the value of loyalty is mainly used to maintain the political order with hierarchical privileges as the core. Because the values of filial piety and loyalty are of crucial importance to maintaining the socio-political order of traditional China, they have always been enshrined as the supreme ethical norm by mainstream ideologies such as Confucianism and the ruling classes of previous generations. The classic literature focusing on the core values of the two traditions of filial piety and loyalty is regarded as the "Classic" and has become a must-read text for scholars in all generations, that is, the "Book of Filial Piety" compiled in the Qin and Han Dynasties and the "Zhongjing" written in imitation of the "Filial Piety Classic" in the Eastern Han Dynasty.
"Filial piety" emphasizes reverence for ancestors, obedience to elders, and inheritance of the cause of ancestors. "Filial piety" is one of the earliest ancient characters to appear in Chinese, and archaeological evidence shows that the word "filial piety" has appeared in the Yin Xu Bu Ci of the Shang Dynasty. The "filial piety" of the early Jin Wen is the pictogram of a child supporting the elderly. In the Book of Shang, there are records of "filial piety" and "filial piety to raise parents", and "filial piety" already has the basic meaning of doing good deeds to parents and respecting elders. In patriarchal societies, such "filial piety" is actually an indispensable ethical norm for maintaining hierarchical order and harmony within the family, so it is called "the beginning of etiquette" and "the foundation of benevolence". In the early days of human society, this kind of filial piety of "respecting relatives and relatives" was particularly important for maintaining the hierarchical order of society. Thus, by the Zhou Dynasty, "filial piety" had not only become a core value that rulers had striven to advocate, but had also been transformed into an important patriarchal system and extensive social practice.
For example, the Book of Rites clearly points out that all kinds of mourning clothes and filial piety ceremonies are nothing more than to promote "the difference between relatives and relatives, respect, elders, men and women, and the greater ones of humanity" ("Li Ji • Funeral Dress Notes"),various "Xiuzong Temple" and "Worship Ceremonies" and other acts of sacrifice are nothing more than "the people's pursuit of filial piety" ("Li Ji Fang Ji"). Confucius raised filial piety to the height of "the foundation of man", "filial piety is also the basis of benevolence" (Analects of Learning). Mencius believed that "the way of Yao Shun is only filial piety" (Mencius Zhizi Xia). In Zhu Xi's view, "If you can do filial piety to your father, then the principle of heaven is naturally clear; if you can do filial piety to your mother, then the reason of the place is naturally observed" (Zhu Zi Yu Class, vol. 82, "Filial Piety"). According to legend, the "Law of The Emperor" created for the Duke of Zhou not only officially listed filial piety as a key praise of the "Shangyu", but also gave filial piety a rich social and political significance: "Filial piety of the Five Sects of Peace", "Kindness and Love of Relatives and Filial Piety", "Joy and Filial Piety of The Association of The Times", "Bingde Does Not Return to Filial Piety", "Great Concern for The Festival of Filial Piety", "Filial Piety from Obedience to Fate", "Loving Love and Forgetting Labor and Filial Piety", "Filial Piety of Succession", "Filial Piety of Zhi The Book of Filial Piety says: "Filial piety, the origin of virtue, the place of teaching is born", "The body is skinless, and the parents who receive it do not dare to be injured, and the beginning of filial piety is also." Stand on the path of walking, make a name for yourself in the hereafter, show your parents, and the end of filial piety" (Filial Piety Sutra, Chapter 1 of the Opening Chapter). In short, all words and deeds conducive to maintaining the patriarchal order with "father, son and son" as the core can be included in the category of "filial piety".
The main meaning of "loyalty" is reverence, dedication, and obedience to the supreme, especially absolute obedience and loyalty to the monarch and the court. Compared with "filial piety", the word "loyalty" seems to have appeared much later. According to research, the word "Zhong" does not appear in the oracle bone, jin, or bu ci, and even in the Book of Poetry and the Book of Present Literature. Therefore, before the Spring and Autumn Period, there was no word "loyalty". The earliest classical document with the word "Zhong" appeared was the Zuo Zhuan, and there were 72 occurrences of the word "Zhong". "The so-called Word is faithful to the people and to God. Shangsi Limin, Zhongye; Zhu Shi Zhengci, Xinye. It can be seen that the original meaning of the word "loyalty" is exactly the opposite of the later one, which is the ruler's loyalty to the people: "Shangsi Limin". "After the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period, the connotation of the concept of 'loyalty' underwent a major evolution. As a political ethics concept, 'loyalty' changed from requiring the monarch to be 'loyal to the people' to requiring his subordinates to be loyal to the community, to the affairs of the public, and to the monarch. Judging from the classics of Confucius, Laozi, Mozi, Xunzi, Han Feizi, and Mencius, the concept of "loyalty" was already quite popular in the pre-Qin period, and together with "filial piety", it became a core value advocated by the mainstream ideology of the pre-Qin.
For example, Confucius regarded loyalty as the "way" of "consistency": "The way of the master is only faithfulness and forgiveness." He asked his disciples to regard "loyalty" as the basic rule for engaging in politics: "Zi Zhang asks for government." Zi Yue: 'Live tirelessly, and be faithful in your deeds.' He also regarded loyalty as one of the four contents of teaching and educating people: "The Son teaches in four ways: wen, xing, faithful, and faithful. Xunzi emphasizes that the object of loyalty to a man is the king, "treat the king with courtesy, be loyal and unremitting" (Xunzi Jundao). Han Fei said it more bluntly: "Those who concentrate on the master are loyal subjects", "The so-called loyal subjects do not endanger their kings" ("Han Feizi Zhongxiao"). The pre-Qin literature "Yu Fa" also regards "loyalty" as a beautiful saying: "serving loyalty in danger", "worrying about the country and forgetting the family is loyal", "endangering the country is loyal", "the matter of the jun is loyal", "pushing the sage to be loyal", "not to be loyal to the enemy", "to be loyal to the filial piety of the king", "to die as a society to be loyal", "to kill to repay the country is loyal" (Yi Zhou Shu · The Zhongjing says: "He who is loyal to him is said to be in his heart"; "Once upon a time, in the most reasonable, with virtue and virtue, to levy heaven and rest, and the way of loyalty is also"; "The faithful are loyal, prosperous in the body, written at home, and become in the country, and their deeds are one and the same" (Zhongjing, Chapter 1 of the Heaven and Earth Gods). It is not difficult to find that all words and deeds that are conducive to maintaining the political order of "kings and subjects" can be included in the category of "loyalty", the essence of which is to emphasize the absolute loyalty of subjects to the king.
Furthermore, "filial piety" is mainly used to regulate the social order based on blood patriarchy, which belongs more to the field of "family" and "private"; "loyalty" is mainly used to regulate the political order based on hierarchical power, and it belongs more to the field of "state" and "public". Just like the relationship between the public and the private, on the one hand, the political order and the social order may not necessarily contradict each other, and the two can be compatible with each other; on the other hand, the public and the private, the state and the family are after all in two fields, and there must be contradictions and conflicts in nature. Consistent with this, loyalty and filial piety also have their own inherent contradictions, which will inevitably conflict with each other, that is, what the ancients called "loyalty and filial piety are difficult to be complete." Therefore, how to reconcile the contradictions between public and private, family and state, loyalty and filial piety is directly related to the public order of society. In order to maintain the basic order of society, on the one hand, the thinkers and rulers of ancient China predetermined the fundamental commonality of personal interests and national interests, so they particularly emphasized the internal consistency between private and public, home and state; on the other hand, they also predetermined the differences between the two, and when the two conflicted, they unanimously emphasized the priority of public superiority over private, the state over the family, and loyalty to filial piety. When "loyalty and filial piety cannot be complete", filial piety for the family should give way to loyalty to the country. This logic is embodied in Ding You's institutional arrangement: daily filial piety is not only beneficial to the family, but also beneficial to the country; once the country has special needs, filial piety must be subordinated to loyalty. When the interests of the family contradict the needs of the imperial court, the courtiers must "transfer filial piety and loyalty", and the monarch can "regain affection" for the courtiers. The internal logic of Ding You's institutional arrangements for "transferring filial piety to be loyal" and "seizing affection and reviving" is "loyalty and filial piety as one".
As early as Confucius, loyalty and filial piety were already integrated. In his opinion, those who honor their elders will not commit rebellion. Not committing a crime is the basic requirement for loyalty to the superior. "There is a son who knows: 'He who is a filial piety and a good offender is rare, and he who is not good at committing a crime and is good at making trouble is not yet there.'" "The logic that Confucius uses here to argue that the unity of filial piety and loyalty is actually empirical, and it is not so much a theoretical argument as an advocacy of values: filial piety and loyalty are naturally one, and to be loyal to one's superiors one must be filial to the elders." Ji Kangzi asked, 'What if the people are respectful and loyal and persuaded?' The Son said: "When you come to the village, you respect it; if you are filial and kind, you are loyal; if you do good and you can't teach it, you persuade it." Since filial piety within the family is intrinsically consistent with loyalty in the country, filial piety at home is also loyalty to the country. Therefore, when someone asked Confucius why he did not engage in politics, Confucius said: "The Book of Clouds: 'Filial piety is filial piety, and friendship is better than brotherhood.' 'To administer the government, is it also to govern, and to be the government?' (Analects for Government)
After Confucius, the concept of filial piety and loyalty was widely accepted by intellectuals and the ruling class, and became an important concept that ran through traditional Chinese society and was deeply rooted in the hearts of the people. Filial piety and loyalty are not only one and the same, but also the premise of loyalty. Only filial piety at home can we be loyal to the country. It is in this sense that "filial piety to rule the world" has become a popular political concept in traditional society, and filial piety has thus become an important source of legitimacy for traditional politics. The Book of Rites and Sacrifices says: "A loyal subject is a king, and a filial son is a relative." In the "Book of Han and the Biography of Zhang Yu", there is: "If you retire from the family, you dedicate yourself to your relatives, and if you enter the eunuch, you will do your best to be a king." Lu Jia advocated: "Those who are in the court are loyal to the king, and those who are at home are filial to their relatives." Fang Xiaoru said: "Husband filial piety is the origin of all goodness, and if you transfer the heart of your relatives, if you do things, you will be loyal to the king, and if you love your relatives and people, you will be benevolent." Even Li Yan, a great thinker of the Ming Dynasty who was unique in the traditional Ding worry system, believed that filial piety and loyalty were fundamentally consistent, "loyalty to the king, respect for the country, commitment to retribution, forgetting selfishness and forgetting the family, and the great filial piety."
The classic texts "Filial Piety" and "Zhongjing", which focus on the integration of filial piety and filial piety, have had a profound impact on traditional Chinese culture and have shaped the traditional behavior of Chinese to a large extent. The legend of the "Book of Filial Piety" was written by Confucius, but later generations generally believe that the book was written at the time of the Qin and Han Dynasties, which is actually the exposition and play of Confucius's views by later generations. Ji Xiaolan of the Qing Dynasty believed that the Book of Filial Piety was Confucius's "last words of the disciples of the Seventy Sons" (The General Catalogue of the Four Libraries). In traditional China, the Book of Filial Piety was a popular children's book that was not only widely respected by Confucian scholars, but also paid special attention to by rulers. Of the Commentaries on the Thirteen Classics, which has survived to this day, the Book of Filial Piety is the only classic annotated by the emperor himself. According to the old and new Book of Tang, Li Longji, emperor Xuanzong of Tang, twice annotated the Book of Filial Piety. In his preface, he said: "Although the filial piety of the heart has been sprouted, the courtesy of respect is simple, and the benevolence and righteousness are there, and the praise is beneficial." Saints know that filial piety can teach people, so because they are strict and respectful, because they teach love. Therefore, the way of obedience and loyalty was revealed, and the righteousness of standing up for fame was revealed. Zi Yue: "I am determined to be in the Spring and Autumn Period, and I am in the Book of Filial Piety." 'Is it the one who knows filial piety, the essence of virtue?' The Book of Filial Piety not only elaborates on the rich meaning of filial piety, but also concisely and concisely explains the important ideas of filial piety ruling the world, filial piety and loyalty, shifting filial piety to be loyal, and righteousness greater than filial piety.
Filial piety is the "foundation of virtue", "the scripture of heaven" and "the righteousness of the earth", which is the root of social order; therefore, to maintain order with filial piety and achieve the submission of the world, that is, the so-called "filial piety to rule the world", is the "supreme moral path" of the monarch. Only when everyone fulfills filial piety can we maintain the patriarchal order of "fathers and sons", "elders and young children", "brothers and brothers", and "husbands and wives". The opening of the "Filial Piety Classic" clearly points out: "The first king has the most important way of virtue, to follow the world, to make peace with the people, and there is no complaint from above and below", "Filial piety, the origin of virtue, and the birth of the place of teaching" ("Filial Piety Sutra , Kaizong Mingyi Chapter 1"). "Filial piety, the scripture of heaven, the righteousness of the earth, and the deeds of the people." The scriptures of heaven and earth, and the people are. Then the light of the heavens, because of the benefits of the land, to conform to the world. It is formed by its teachings and its administration is not strict. Filial piety is not only the duty of the subjects, but also the duty of the king: "In the past, the Ming king ruled the world with filial piety, and did not dare to leave the subjects of small countries behind, but the situation was that of the duke, the prince, the uncle, the son, and the man? Therefore he shall be pleased with all nations, and shall be the king before him. Those who govern the country do not dare to insult widows and widows, but they are worse than the people? Therefore he shall be pleased by the people, and he shall be the first to be the king. Those who govern the family do not dare to lose to their concubines, but to their wives? Therefore he is pleased with the people, so that he can do things to his relatives. FuRan, the old life is intimate, and the sacrifice is enjoyed by the ghost. It is peace under the heavens, disasters do not arise, and disasters do not occur. Therefore, the same is true of the Ming King's filial piety in ruling the world. (Filial Piety, Chapter VIII)
Starting from filial piety and finally being loyal, the political order is the core of the national order, and without loyalty, filial piety loses its political value. Therefore, only by moving loyalty into filial piety and filial piety can we realize "filial piety to rule the world." The First Chapter of the Book of Filial Piety says: "Filial piety begins with relatives, and finally establishes oneself." The essential order of dynasties is a political order based on hierarchical privileges, and "filial piety" has different meanings for the sons of heaven, princes, doctors, scholars, and people.
For the monarch, it is not only necessary to take the lead in filial piety like ordinary people, but more importantly, to let all the people abide by filial piety: "In the past, the king of ming did his father's filial piety, the story was bright; the mother was filial, the story was observed; the elder and the young were obedient, so they ruled from top to bottom." The heavens and the earth are clear, and the gods are prominent. Therefore, though the Son of Heaven will have honor and fatherhood in his words, he will have a father in his words, and he will have a brother in his words. (Filial Piety Sutra, Chapter 16) "Those who love their relatives do not dare to be evil to others; those who respect their relatives do not dare to be slower than others." Love and respect are done to relatives, and morality is imposed on the people and punished in all parts of the world. Cover the filial piety of the Heavenly Son. (Filial Piety, Chapter 2 of the Heavenly Son) For the princes and princes, it is filial piety to keep to oneself and to be harmonious from top to bottom: "Not arrogant at the top, high but not dangerous; restraining and being prudent, full but not overflowing." High but not dangerous, so long keep gui also. Full but not overflowing, so long shou fu also. The rich and the noble do not leave their bodies, and then they can protect their society and their people. Cover the filial piety of the princes. (The Book of Filial Piety, Chapter 3 of the Princes Chapter) "The dharma of non-previous kings does not dare to obey, the dharma words of non-kings do not dare to speak, and the virtues of non-previous kings do not dare to do." Therefore, it is illegal not to speak, not to do it; the mouth has no choice of words, the body has no choice of deeds; words are full of the world without mouth, and deeds are full of the world without resentment: the three are prepared, and then they can guard their temples. Gaiqing Doctor's Filial Piety. (Filial Piety, Chapter 4 of the Qing Dynasty) For the scholar, it is important to be filial to both filial piety and filial piety: "To be kind to the father and to the mother, and to love the same; to be kind to the father and to the king, and to respect the same." Therefore the mother takes his love, and the king takes his respect, and the father also takes it. Therefore, filial piety is loyal to the king, and obedience is obedient to the chief. Be faithful and faithful, so that you can keep your position and keep your sacrifices. Filial piety of Gaishi. For ordinary people, filial piety to one's parents is a great thing: "Use the way of heaven, divide the interests of the land, and use it sparingly to raise one's parents. (The Sixth Chapter of the Book of Filial Piety)
Scholars, who hold the power of the state and are the core force for maintaining political and social order, should become models of "filial piety and loyalty" and "shifting filial piety and loyalty". For a gentleman, filial piety at home and loyalty in the country are completely the same: "A gentleman's affairs are filial piety, so loyalty can be transferred to the king." Brother, so Shun can move to long. At home, therefore the rule can be moved to the official. It is to be accomplished in the inner, and the name is established in the hereafter. (The 14th Chapter of the Book of Filial Piety) The key to filial piety is to be loyal to the monarch, consciously maintain the hierarchical order of the dynasty, and strive to achieve harmony between the monarch and the subject: "In the affairs of a gentleman, he thinks loyally, retreats and makes up for it, will go along with the beauty, save his evil, so that the upper and lower levels can be close to each other." The fundamental purpose of filial piety and loyalty is to make the people of the world obey the monarch and respect the elders: "The teaching of a gentleman is filial piety, and it is not a family but a day." Teach filial piety, so respect the father of the world. Teach to be compassionate, so respect the world as a brother also. Teach the subjects, so respect the world as a king. If anyone dares to rebel against the monarch, despise the saints, and disobey his parents, it is a great rebellion and must be severely punished, otherwise there will be great chaos in the world: "The five punishments belong to three thousand, and the sin is greater than filial piety." Those who want kings are supreme, those who are not saints cannot, and those who are not filial piety have no relatives. This great mess of the way also. (Filial Piety, Chapter 11 of the Five Punishments)
The Zhongjing, written by Ma Rong of the Eastern Han Dynasty, tried to imitate the Book of Filial Piety, both in internal logic and external form. According to Ma Rong, "Those who are loyal to the scriptures are also covered by the filial piety classics." Jonny said that the Book of Filial Piety and the righteousness of the Emperor of Dunshi are made by knowing that filial piety is faithful. It is therefore the grace of the king, the deeds of the ming courtiers, loyalty cannot be abolished in the country, and filial piety cannot be relaxed at home. Filial piety has both the scriptures, and loyalty is still que, so the meaning of Zhongni is described, and the "Zhongjing" is written. (Zhongjing Jing, Preface) The Zhongjing adheres to the Confucian idea of filial piety and loyalty, but the emphasis has changed significantly. The Book of Filial Piety first advocates and demonstrates the unity of filial piety and loyalty, and while taking filial piety as the first, it also emphasizes the value and significance of loyalty. However, the emphasis on loyalty in the Book of Filial Piety is to be loyal to filial piety, and loyalty is the requirement of filial piety. In contrast, the author of the "Zhongjing" emphasizes that "filial piety is made of loyalty", which is to affirm the value of filial piety under the premise of taking loyalty as the first. The Zhongjing highlights the value of loyalty, in fact, it is no longer loyal to filial piety, but filial piety to loyalty. This shows that at least by the Eastern Han Dynasty, "filial piety and loyalty" had been transformed into "loyalty and filial piety", and loyalty had actually become the primary core value.
Loyalty to heaven and earth, prosperity in the body, and success in the country are the "supreme reason" of man and the foundation of the country. The "Zhongjing" points out: "Once upon a time, in the most reasonable, there was a virtue from top to bottom, so as to levy heavenly rest, and the way of loyalty was also." The heavens are covered, the earth is contained, and the people are covered, and there is no greater loyalty. The loyal, the middle, the most selfless. Heaven is selfless, the four hours are traveled; the earth is selfless, all things are born; man is selfless, the tycoon is virtuous. Those who are loyal to each other are called by their hearts. For the foundation of the country, He Mo is loyal. Loyalty can solidify the monarch, Ansheji, feel the heavens and the earth, move the gods, and the situation is worse than the people? Husbands are loyal, prosperous in the body, at home, and in the country, and their deeds are all in one way. Therefore, one is in his body, and the beginning of loyalty is also in his family; one is in his family, and one is loyal to his country. Loyalty and filial piety both stem from the nature of human beings who tend to be good: "For the sake of loyalty, it exists in persuasion; how can the greatness of persuasion be added to those who are loyal and filial?" ("Loyalty" ("Loyalty" Sutra · Preface) Without loyalty, filial piety cannot be guaranteed: "He who is filial to his husband will be loyal." Loyalty is not enough, and what is done is not the way to go. It is because they are not loyal enough, but they lose their defense, and the bandits are in danger, and they insult their relatives. Therefore, when a gentleman does his filial piety, he must first be loyal, and if he is loyal, he will be blessed to the end. Therefore, if you have the heart of love and respect, you will raise your relatives and give to others, which is called filial piety. (Zhongjing Bao Filial Piety Chapter 10)
Although loyalty has different meanings for emperors, ministers, and subjects, the essential meaning of loyalty is absolute loyalty and obedience to the monarch, and it is the conscious recognition and maintenance of the hierarchical privileged order represented by the monarch. "For the sake of the courtiers, the loyalty of the original, the original and the incarnation." Tsukasa is one and the same, descending and believing, so it can become loyal. ...... Honor his king, there is the greatness of heaven and earth, the light of the sun, the sum of yin and yang, the faith of the four hours, the overflowing of holiness, and the sound of praise. For the courtiers, on the one hand, it is for the sake of "Ansheji", "peace and happiness of the people, and peace and well-being of the state", that is, to maintain the political order of the country and the people. In this sense, loyalty is a moral responsibility for courtiers, and "goodness is greater than loyalty." On the other hand, the monarch is a community of interests, and safeguarding the interests of the monarch's rule is ultimately also safeguarding the vital interests of the courtiers. "Those who are subjects, officials and kings, successively Guangqing, all of them are virtuous, and they do not think of repaying the country, are they loyal?" Therefore, whether a courtier is loyal to the monarch is based not only on the selfless "heart of the world" but also on his own glory and wealth, "Good is greater than loyalty, and evil is greater than disloyalty." Loyalty is blissful, and disloyalty is punished with punishment" (Chapter 16 of the Book of Loyalty). The loyalty of courtiers to the monarch advocated in the Zhongjing is an absolute and infinite loyalty. When one's own private interests contradict the "national interests" of loyal to the king and the country, one should not hesitate to sacrifice one's life to serve the king: "Those who are loyal to the husband, but they will forget their lives in the king, forget the country and forget their families, and speak with integrity and righteousness. (Tsukasa Tsukasa Chapter 3)
The reason why loyalty has become the primary core value is that it can "protect the family state" and "the extreme world", that is, maintain a political order based on hierarchical privileges and monarchical exaltation, so it has also become the primary criterion for traditional political evaluation. The value of faithfulness is that of a good courtier; and if he does not keep the word of loyalty, he is a traitor. Correspondingly, in traditional China, "loyalty," "loyalty," and "loyalty" became the highest praise for political behavior, while "loyal subjects," "loyalists," and "loyal sages" became the highest evaluations of officials. In traditional China, the only object of political loyalty was the imperial monarch and the dynastic regime with the monarch as the core. In line with this, the main body judging the loyalty of courtiers is naturally the monarch, and "distinguishing between loyalty and adultery" has become an important duty of the "Ming King". The "Zhongjing" says: "Loyalty is the Tao, and if it is given to the Tao, it can protect the family and the state, and if it is given to the far side, it can be extremely heaven and earth." Therefore, for the king of Ming to be a nation, he must first discern loyalty. The words of a gentleman are loyal but not obedient; the words of a villain are as faithful as those who are loyal, but they are not heard, and they are rarely confused. If you are loyal and able to be benevolent, then the country's virtue is outstanding; if you are loyal and wise, you will be able to act in the country's political deeds; if you are loyal and courageous, the country will be difficult to clear, so although it has its ability, it will be loyal. If you are benevolent but not loyal, you will be selfish; if you are wise and unfaithful, you will be deceitful; if you are brave and unfaithful, you will be prone to chaos, and although you have your ability, you will be defeated by disloyalty. These three must not be distinguished. In the view of the author of the Zhongjing, as long as everyone is loyal to the imperial court and the king and consciously maintains the existing ruling order, then "Dahua Xingxingxingxing, barbarian obedience, people and subjects and joy, and the state of Pingkang" (Zhongjing Guangwei Guozhang 11). Therefore, it is an important function of the monarch to strive to make everyone loyal to the villain and gentleman: "The world is loyal, and the pure and pure are also done." If a gentleman is loyal, he will do his best, and if a villain is loyal, he will do his best. Those who do their best will stop themselves, and those who do their best will be far away. Therefore, the reason of the Ming King is also in renxian, and the virtuous subjects are loyal, then the junde is widespread. (Zhongjing, Chapter 18 of the Zhongzhong Chapter)
Confucius and Confucianism tried to eliminate the inherent contradictions between home and state, private and public, filial piety and loyalty through "filial piety and loyalty" or "loyalty and filial piety", which is of great significance for maintaining social and political order. Thus, although the argument for the integration of filial piety or the integration of filial piety has never had a convincing basis, it has been accepted as an unquestionable natural principle by successive rulers and mainstream ideologies, and has made it the theoretical basis for the homogeneity of the home-state in traditional Chinese society through systems such as Ding You.
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When it comes to the structure of traditional Chinese society, a general consensus is "home-state isomorphism" There is a famous exposition in the Book of Rites and Universities, which is often used as a classic expression of the homogeneity of the home country in traditional Chinese society: "Those who want to be clear and virtuous in the world in ancient times will first rule their country; those who want to rule their country, first qi their home; those who want to cultivate their home, first cultivate their body; those who want to cultivate their body, first correct their heart; those who want to correct their heart, first be sincere; those who want to be sincere in their intentions, first give them knowledge; and those who want to know in the grid." After the qualities are known; after knowing the intentions are sincere; the intention is sincere and then the heart is right; the heart is right and then the body is cultivated; the body is cultivated and then the family is aligned; the family is together and then the country is ruled; the country is ruled and then the world is peaceful. In arguing and explaining this phenomenon of home-state isomorphism in traditional society, many existing research documents clearly reveal the ethical basis of its "loyalty and filial piety" and the governance logic of "filial piety to rule the world", but most of the research focuses on the ethical value and theoretical basis of home-country isomorphism, and rarely conducts in-depth investigation of this from the perspective of social and political system. In fact, as a social structure, it is impossible to continue for a long time without corresponding institutional guarantees. The most important factor in the formation of a social structure is the institutional environment of society. Institutions are the social structures that regulate and regulate the way people behave, and as Douglas North said, "Institutions are the rules of the game of a society, and more normatively, they are artificial constraints that determine the interrelationship of people." The system sets the incentive and punishment mechanism for human behavior, determines the benefits obtained from rewards, and the cost of fouls and punishments, thereby determining and limiting people's behavioral choices, providing a stable framework or structure for human interaction. The institutional environment not only internally shapes the behavior of individuals, but also forcibly constrains the behavior of groups from the outside, and ultimately makes the behavior of groups become a structural element of society in a specific period. Ding Worry is an important political institutional arrangement for shaping and maintaining the homogeneity of the home state in traditional Chinese society, which contains both the cost of punishment and the benefit of reward.
The Ding system explicitly treats home and state as homogeneous governance structures. Aristotle said that man is an animal that naturally tends to live in groups, and that "man is, by his very nature, a political animal." A necessary prerequisite for group life is the existence of a basic social order. To date, a common conclusion of all political scientific research is that the fundamental purpose of all the systems invented by man himself is to regulate his own behavior and to form a certain social order. The state is the authority of the legal system and one of the most important inventions of mankind itself. The direct cause of the emergence of the state is to avoid mutual conflict and carnage between people and groups, and to maintain the social order necessary for the common life of mankind. Traditional China is certainly no exception, and the ultimate purpose of all socio-political systems is to maintain public order in society. In traditional China, this hierarchical order of society was based on two basic structures, namely the family and the state. Both family life, which is inherently private in nature, or state public life above the family, is brought together into the sphere of political life. Maintaining a family order based on blood patriarchy and maintaining a state order based on hierarchical power are two different social functions that are also regarded as political affairs of the state in traditional China. The earliest understanding of politics by the ancient Chinese began with these two orders. For example, as early as the Western Zhou Dynasty, the hierarchical order composed of eight social roles of husband and wife, father and son, brother, and monarch was clearly called the most important "eight governments". As long as the relationship between the eight social roles of husband and wife, father and son, brother, and monarch is straightened out according to the words of the saint, the political life of the country will also be smooth. That is, the so-called "Shunyan Yue Zheng, Shun Zheng Yue Sui" (Yi Zhou Shu Chang Xun Xie Iii).
After the Western Zhou Dynasty, the above-mentioned "eight policies" gradually evolved into the most substantive "two policies", that is, "kings and subjects" and "fathers and sons". The structural significance of this hierarchical order of "father and son" is to treat the family and the state as homogeneous governance structures: in the family the father is the absolute core of power; in the state, the monarch is the absolute core of power. This kind of homogeneous governance structure between home and country will inevitably lead to the functional homogenization of home and country: "in the state affairs of the king" and "in the family father" are intrinsically consistent. "Loyal subjects to their kings, filial piety to their relatives, their original one also" ("Ritual Records · Sacrifice System"), the homogenization of the structure and function of the family and the state is the structural basis of the traditional Chinese Ding worry system. This homogenization of the governance structure of the home country is conducive to maintaining the public order of social life and the political order of hierarchical power, so it is not only respected by the traditional scholar class, but also advocated by the supreme ruler. Zhu Di said: "Husband filial piety begins with the matter of relatives, and finally the matter of the king. The loyalty of the Gaishijun is the filial piety of the relatives. Man is born of the Father and eats it, and the story is the same. Since the family and the state have a homogeneous governance structure, the homogenization of its governance authority and governance methods is also a natural result. As the commentator said: "'The Father tells the Son to die, and the Son has to die', 'The king calls the subject to die, and the subject has to die'." The father is 'king in everything' in the family, and the monarch is the 'strict father' of the whole country. The authority of the patriarch and the monarch is integrated. ”
The Ding worry system breaks the boundaries between home and country, and places filial piety that originally belonged to the category of family private behavior within the scope of national public affairs. Under the Ding worry system, it is necessary to punish not only public behaviors such as "hiding mourning and not reporting" and "risking mourning", but also private behaviors such as indulging in song and dancing and drinking and entertainment during the mourning period. Thus, in the Dingyou system, the boundaries between the family and the imperial court, private life and public affairs, and personal interests and national interests completely disappeared, and the family and the state became one. In other words, in traditional Chinese society, home-state isomorphism is not only a value advocacy, but also an institutional structure. The Dingyou system is precisely such a system of home-state isomorphism, which makes the home and the state homogeneous in structure and function by eliminating the boundaries between individual behavior and official duties, private life and public affairs.
Other important political systems in traditional China also performed the function of strengthening home-state isomorphism, such as the "sitting together" and "sheltering" systems. The "consecutive sitting" system is a crime committed by one person, and other members of his immediate family are also punished by law, the most famous of which is the so-called "Zhulian Nine Tribes". On the contrary, the "shade shelter" (also often called "shade shelter") system is a meritorious service for one person, and his family and future generations can also enjoy the privileges granted by the state, and even relatives who break the law can be reduced by one degree. The essence of the "sitting" and "shelter" systems is also to break the boundaries between home and state, and to establish a certain correspondence between the public power of the state and the private rights of the family. The scope of "consecutive sitting" varied from dynasty to dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, the scope of "Zhulian" was very extensive, and even included the mourning behavior in the Dingwu system. In the Ming Dynasty, "the main administrative constraints on concealing funerals and not reporting them were: the implementation of the survey system, and the use of the 'consecutive sitting' system to supervise the system of mourning and observance of Officials in Dingyou." Systems such as "sitting together" and "sheltering" bring private family behavior into the scope of state public administration, greatly strengthening the homogeneity of home-state.
In traditional Chinese society, the home-country isomorphism is not the national isomorphism of the home, but the home is isomorphic of the state. In the Ding worry system, it is embodied in the fact that when loyalty and filial piety cannot be fulfilled, filial piety must give way to loyalty, that is, the so-called "transfer of filial piety to loyalty"; when the private filial piety of the family conflicts with the public affairs of the state, the private filial piety of officials must be subordinated to the public needs of the state, that is, the so-called "regaining affection". If an official is unwilling to renounce his or her filial piety to his parents, he or she may be demoted or removed from office or punished with punishment up to capital punishment. For example, the State of Wu during the Three Kingdoms period stipulated: "The death of a husband for three years, the world reaches the system of ... As for things, it is advisable to kill them. In the case of litigation, it is advisable to do everything in the case, first public and then private, and not to accept, not even to say that it is also ... Loyalty is in the country, filial piety establishes a family, born as a vassal, and has it both? Therefore, a loyal subject shall not be a filial son. It is advisable to set a letter of caution, and if it is violated, there is no forgiveness for the crime. Kill to stop killing, and do one thing, and then it will be extinguished. Faced with the severe punishment of the law, when faced with the court's revenge, the general official would abandon filial piety and loyalty and obey the interests of the court with personal behavior.
Home and country are a community of interests and destiny, and the family is the cell that makes up the country and the basic unit of the political community of the state. The interests and destinies of the family, which is the constituent unit of the community of nations, are inherently closely linked to the rise and fall of the community of nations. In traditional China, there are a series of political systems used to establish and consolidate the homogeneous structure of the family and the state as a community of interests and destiny. For example, the ancient Chinese knighthood system directly linked the interests of the state with the interests of the family, and for those who made great contributions to the establishment and consolidation of the dynasty, the emperor granted various hereditary titles within the family, and gave various benefits and privileges to the members of the family according to the rank of the title. The household registration system, which has a long history in China, is also a basic system that strengthens the homogeneity of home and country to a considerable extent. Among them, the Baojia system is a traditional household registration system with Chinese characteristics, the essence of this system is to integrate the political relations of the country with the blood relations of the family, the fundamental purpose of which is to maintain the stability of the social regime, and to reward and punish the family members under the Baojia system according to whether it is conducive to the stability of the regime and the performance of the rule.
The Ding worry system also plays a role in strengthening the community of interests of the home country. For example, according to the provisions of the Ding worry system, those who did not report funerals or misbehave during the mourning period were punished by the imperial court; in contrast, for those officials who exemplified the implementation of the Ding worry system, material and official rewards were given. In many dynasties, the imperial court not only granted bereavement leave during the period of official dingwu, but also usually gave half or full salary depending on the level of their official position. For example, during the Hongwu period of the Ming Dynasty, "all civil officials who have been in office for five years and have been honest and diligent and have committed crimes without booty are given the final system of half-lu according to their rank; those who have been in office for three years are given three months of Quanlu" (Records of the Ming Dynasty, vol. 159). For those who have outstanding filial piety during the Period of Ding Worry, they are also given promotions and promotions. For example, the Ming Dynasty's quanjian, "the ninetieth year of the mother, the tomb of three years, to the difference between the spring and the rabbit." Emperor Shizong ordered Chi Yi to go to Que and make his case, and ordered his attendants to recite the Great Court to show the hundred officials, that is, to worship the scholars of WenhuaDian University" (Ming Shi, vol. 296, "The Biography of Filial Piety"). The imperial court gave favors and rewards to officials for their filial piety, in fact, they regarded the protection of the private interests of the family and the protection of the public interest of the state.
Like other political systems, the Ding-worry system inevitably became a tool for the imperial court to engage in interest games and political struggles with officials. The use of the Ding worry system to fake public welfare and private interests is a common phenomenon in all dynasties, which objectively also promotes the process of homogenization of the home country. The most common practices of using the Ding worry system for private interests are the so-called "hiding mourning without retribution" and "seeking affection for affection". Relevant studies have shown that the main reasons for concealing the news of the death of parents and thus avoiding the worries of leaving Ding are: (1) to avoid the loss of Feng Lu. Because in many dynasties, middle- and lower-ranking officials usually only have half a salary, or even no qilu. Avoiding Ding Worries can reduce the loss of profits. (2) Ding worries may affect the promotion of his career, and even lose the opportunity for promotion. The three-year period of Ding Worry is usually deducted from the official's service experience, and the longer the Ding Worry period, the less seniority the official accumulates. In addition, some officials who are about to be promoted will miss the opportunity for promotion if they happen to be worried about their resignation. (3) It is more difficult for officials to be reinstated. Ding You's departure is actually a "shuffle" of power in the official field, under normal circumstances, Ding You's resignation is very small, except for the chance of replacing the original post, especially for middle and lower-level civilian officials, Ding You usually has to change his position after his return. In order to keep their original posts, some officials will take the risk and hide their losses without reporting. However, mourning is illegal after all, and once found, it will be severely punished. Many officials have tried to legitimize their efforts to evade Ding's worries, and instead seek to "regain their feelings." The seizure of affection was the court's act of terminating officials according to the needs of the state, which not only legally retained official positions, but also a symbol of status and status. It shows that the seized officials were more important to the imperial court than ordinary officials. "In this case, the official who wins the favor becomes the representative of the 'capable official', and becomes the minister who is in danger of the world. It is necessary to gain both the real benefits of affection and the reputation of affection. Fame and fortune can, of course, drum up the wind of rescue and love." Not only that, but rescue is often achieved in an organized manner and becomes an "unspoken rule" of fact. "This organization is composed of Ding You officials and officials and people who have requested reservations, and its size ranges from two or three to hundreds of people, or even tens of thousands. An organization is composed of individuals of common interest, and the actions of the organization are to promote the personal interests of its members".
Under the condition of home-state isomorphism, the private events of the family can easily rise to the public events of the state, and vice versa, the public events of the state will also be reduced to the private events of the family, thus bringing various political consequences to the family and the country. In China's history, it is not uncommon for ding to have a major political impact. For example, during the Yongzhen period of the Tang Dynasty, the powerful minister Wang Shuwen happened to have his mother die during the white-hot period of the power struggle in the court, and if he was dismissed according to the system at this time, then the Wang Shuwen clique would definitely lose in the political contest of equal strength. Therefore, the Wang clique tried its best to persuade the imperial court to seize its affection for him and make it continue to hold the central power. In the end, the affair failed, and the Wang Shuwen clique collapsed and seriously affected the political process of the late Tang Dynasty. Similar events occurred in the Ming Dynasty. During the Ming Dynasty, the powerful minister Zhang Juzheng fell for a while, monopolizing the government, and the political enemies dared to be angry and dare not speak out. In the fifth year of the Wanli Calendar, Zhang Juzheng's father died, and political enemies wanted to take advantage of his worries to weaken his power. Unexpectedly, Zhang Juzheng was not only "seized of affection" by the imperial court as desired, but also successfully used the opportunity of "seizing affection" to cut off dissidents and consolidate his power, thus profoundly influencing the political trend of the Wanli years. Some commentators have given a more detailed account of these two famous political events, and may wish to transcribe the original text as follows:
Considering the literature, Wang Shuwen contacted a large number of imperial officials to oppose the eunuch dictatorship in the first year of Emperor Shunzong's reign (805), and thus had a sharp conflict with the eunuch clique. At the time when the power struggle between the two sides was at its most intense, Wang Shuwen was suddenly bereaved by his mother and "Worried about Ding", and he tried to "seize the affection" without success and left the power center. After Wang Shuwen's "Ding You" resigned, the eunuch clique instigated the change of the palace to support the establishment of a new monarch, and officials of the Wang faction such as Wang Ling, Wei Zhiyi, Han Tai, Liu Yuxi, Liu Zongyuan, etc. were either deposed or degraded, and Wang Shuwen was also ordered to die during the "Ding Worry" period. Objectively speaking, the root cause of the complete failure of the Wang clique was the excessive power of the eunuchs and the contradictions within the imperial official clique, but there is no doubt that Wang Shuwen's sudden departure from the power center by Ding Wu, resulting in the group being leaderless, losing morale, and scattered people's hearts, was also an important reason.
Another example is the ming dynasty officialdom, the power struggle caused by Ding Wu's "seizure of affection" is very typical. According to history, in the fifth year of the Wanli Dynasty of emperor Mingshen (1577), Zhang Juzheng, a scholar of the First Auxiliary University, was bereaved by his father, and whether Zhang Juzheng should "seize affection" to stay in his post, triggering a severe political crisis in the central imperial court. According to the Biography of Zhang Juzheng in the Ming Dynasty, a group of pro-Zhang officials of the imperial court "wanted to flatter Juzheng and advocated for affection... Another group of officials "all thought it was impossible" and "successively contended" to oppose Zhang Juzheng's "seizure of affection" to stay in office. The two factions of officials argued fiercely and did not give in to each other. Because Emperor Mingshen decided to let Zhang stay in office, the result was that the officials who opposed Zhang Juzheng's "seizure of affection" "all sat on the court staff and reprimanded them for being poor... The human feelings are fierce, and the eyes are right, to the point of the hanging book. The emperor decreed to his subjects, and those who came back to him were not forgiven, and slander was already done." Zhang Juzheng not only did not leave the central power post because of "Ding Worry", but thus found out the attitude of the imperial court officials towards himself, and successfully used the imperial power to eliminate the dissident forces in the imperial court. However, this incident greatly degraded Zhang's personal reputation, and many people in the imperial official clique believed that Zhang Juzheng was greedy for power, refused to worry about it, and ignored the favor of his parents, which was indeed a disloyal and filial piety. Even during the Chongzhen period, there were courtiers who repeated the old matter in Shangshu, saying that "Zhang Juzheng did not abide by the system and damaged his honor."
To sum up, on the surface, Ding worry is a social custom that expresses gratitude, mourning, and remembrance for deceased relatives, and the Ding worry system fulfills the function of strengthening filial piety and family affection, but in essence, the Ding worry system, as an important institutional arrangement for the integration of loyalty and filial piety and the isomorphism of the home country, has greatly strengthened the traditional Chinese values and socio-political structure of the unity of loyalty and filial piety and the isomorphism of the home country. The Ding worry system originated from the filial piety of patriarchal blood and the social order of "filial piety ruling the world", but it eventually broke the boundary between "filial piety" based on blood patriarchy and "loyalty" based on hierarchical privileges, and integrated loyalty and filial piety, thus substantively breaking the boundary between social order and political order, as well as the boundary between family private interests and national public interests, integrating personal interests with public interests. When filial piety and loyalty, family and state, personal interests and public interests conflict, the Ding worry system transfers filial piety to loyalty through coercion or inducement, and filial piety gives way to loyalty, so that family interests are subordinated to national interests, personal behavior is subordinated to public affairs, and social order is subordinated to political order. Therefore, in essence, the Dingyou system, like the Zhulian system, the armor protection system, and the shade system, is an institutional arrangement that strengthens the isomorphism of the home and the country, and ultimately it is all aimed at maintaining the hierarchical political ruling order with imperial power as the core and the privileged interests of the bureaucratic ruling class represented by the emperor.
Author: Yu Keping, Chair Professor of Peking University and Director of the Center for Chinese Political Science
The original article was published in Tianjin Social Sciences, No. 5, 2021, and the annotations are omitted.