Everyone knows about Genghis Khan's feat of unifying the Mongolian steppe, but few people know that there is a little-known religious legend in this vast steppe. As Temujin's iron horsemen roamed the steppes, the leaders of the Kereh and Naiban tribes often muttered "God" and "Devil". What's going on? Didn't these Mongol tribes believe in immortality and shamanism? Why are their beliefs so similar to those of the West, thousands of miles away? What is even more surprising is that this belief was not introduced after Genghis Khan unified the steppe, but has long taken root in this land. So, how did this mystical belief come to the Mongolian steppe? And how did it affect the Mongolian tribes? How did the fate of the Kereb and Nabaran change as a result? Let's uncover this dusty history and explore the mystery of religion on the grassland.
The rise of the steppe hegemon
The Mongolian Plateau, a vast land, has given birth to countless heroes. Before the rise of Genghis Khan, it was the stage of competition among many tribes, especially the Kereh and Naiban tribes.
The history of the rise and fall of the once dominant steppe is like the undulating hills of the steppe, full of dramatic turns. At the end of the 12th century, under the leadership of Wang Han, the Kerebu gradually became one of the most powerful forces in the Mongolian steppe. Wang Han, the hero of the grassland, formerly known as Tuoli, is full of legends on his rise.
When he was young, the Kreh tribe was confronted with civil strife. His uncle launched a rebellion, and at a critical moment, it was the head of the Mongolian beggar tribe who should also come to the rescue. This helping hand not only saved Tori's life, but also allowed the two to become "Anda", that is, righteous brothers. However, the gears of fate always turn unexpectedly. He was also poisoned and killed, and his younger brother defected to the Barbarian Rebellion, and he was forced to go into exile in Western Liao. After a long period of exile, he traveled through Wu'er and Western Xia, and finally returned to Mobei. With the help of the Mongols, Toli regained the position of Great Khan of the Kerebu.
It was during this turbulent period that the young Temujin came to prominence. Temujin remembered that his father should also quickly respond to Tori, and took the initiative to form an alliance with the Kerebu, and honored Tori as his father-in-law. This alliance laid an important foundation for the future unification of Mongolia.
In 1196 AD, the Jin Dynasty sent Prime Minister Wan Yanxiang to suppress the rebellion of the Tatar tribe. Tuoli led the ministry to grant funds and made great achievements. In order to reward his merits, the Jin Dynasty gave him the title of king. Since then, Tuoli has been famous for the grassland under the name of "Wang Han". During this period, the power of the Kereb reached its peak and became the most powerful tribe in the Mongolian steppe.
However, the pinnacle of power is often accompanied by crisis. As Temujin's power grew, Wang Han began to feel threatened. In order to consolidate his position, he decided to launch an attack on Temujin. In the initial battle, Temujin was defeated and retreated to the lower reaches of the Krulun River. Wang Han was complacent, but he didn't know that it was just the calm before the storm.
Temujin, with his superior military prowess, quickly organized a counterattack. He adopted a surprise tactic and launched a surprise attack while Wang Han was paralyzed. In this battle, the Kereb was defeated and forced to submit to Temujin's command. From then on, the Kereb was reduced from the overlord of the steppe to an integral part of the Mongol Empire.
Despite the loss of its independent status, the Kereb tribe still held an important position in the Mongol Empire due to its great strength and deep heritage. Many of the Kerebe became concubines, ministers, and generals of the Mongol and Yuan dynasties. The most famous of these was Ruheteni, the daughter of Wang Han's younger brother Za'a Xuan, who later married Tuolei. As the biological mother of Möngke, Kublai Khan, Hülegü and Ali Buge, she was revered by later historians as the "Mother of the Four Emperors".
Compared with the Kereh tribe, the fate of the Naiban tribe was more bumpy. The Naiban tribe was originally nomadic in the area around the Altai Mountains, bordering the Kereh tribe. When Temujin annexed the Kereh, the leader of the Naman, Sun Khan, realized that a threat was imminent. In order to protect himself, he decided to unite the remnants of the various armies defeated by Temujin and launch an attack on the Mongols.
However, this risky operation ended in failure. Sun Khan was not only defeated, but also died of serious injuries. Temujin pursued the victory all the way to the Altai Mountains, and finally surrendered to the Naiban tribe. However, the son of Sun Khan, Qu Zhulu, took advantage of the chaos to escape and fled to Western Liao. In order to win the trust of the Western Liao Emperor, Qu Zhulu even gave up his Christian faith, converted to Buddhism, and was accepted as a concubine.
Qu Qulu's fate took another turn. When Khorezm and the Western Qarakhanid jointly attacked Western Liao, he seized the opportunity to collect the remnants of Naiman, captured the Western Liao Emperor, and usurped the throne. However, this short-lived splendor was soon crushed by the iron hooves of Genghis Khan. In 1218, Genghis Khan sent his general Jebe to conquer Western Liao, but Qu Zhulu was captured and finally ambushed in the valley. At this point, the Naiban tribe was completely incorporated into the Great Mongolia.
Although the Naiban tribe disappeared as an independent regime, its influence remained. The wife of the second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, Ogedei, was a native of the Naima tribe. Today, the descendants of the Naiban tribe are mainly distributed
The introduction of mystical beliefs
In the vast steppes of the Mongolian Plateau, a religion from the far west has quietly taken root: Nestorianism. The introduction of Nestorianism added a unique color to the religious map of the Mongolian steppe, and also had a profound impact on the fate of the Kereh and Naiman tribes.
Nestorianism, also known as Nestorian Christianity, originated in the Middle East in the 5th century. Its founder, Nestorius, was a bishop of Constantinople and was expelled for his doctrine that diverged from orthodox Christianity. Nestorius and his followers migrated eastward and gradually gained a foothold in the Persian Empire.
In 635 AD, a Nestorian monk named Aroben led a mission to Chang'an. Tang Taizong Li Shimin was curious about this new religion, and not only allowed them to preach in Chang'an, but also ordered the translation of the Jingjiao scriptures. This marked the official introduction of Nestorianism to China and its rapid development in the Central Plains.
However, the development of Nestorianism in China was not all smooth sailing. During the martyrdom of Tang Wuzong, Nestorianism, Buddhism, and Manichaeism were attacked together. Many Nestorians were forced to migrate to the frontier areas, some of them to the Mongolian plateau. These exiled Nestorians became the pioneers of the spread of Nestorianism in the steppe.
At the same time, the prosperity of the Silk Road provided another important channel for the spread of Nestorianism. Caravans came and went, bringing with them not only silk and spices, but also various religions and cultures. With the footsteps of the caravans, Nestorian gradually penetrated into all corners of the Mongolian plateau.
In the late 11th and early 12th centuries, an important historical event promoted the further spread of Nestorianism in the Mongolian steppe. After the fall of the Liao Dynasty established by the Khitans, a part of the Khitans moved westward and established the Western Liao regime. Many of these Khitans were Nestorians, and they brought their faith to new frontiers. The Western Liao bordered the Mongol tribes, opening the door for Nestorianism to enter Mongol society.
As important tribes bordering Western Liao, the Kereh and Naiman tribes naturally became the key areas for the spread of Nestorianism. The teachings of Nestorianism have many similarities with the inherent religious concepts of the Mongols, such as the worship of the supreme god and the belief in the immortality of the soul, which makes Nestorianism more acceptable to the Mongols.
In addition, the Nestorian missionaries adopted a flexible missionary strategy. Not only did they spread religious teachings, but they also brought advanced medical technology and astronomical knowledge. These practical skills earned them the favor and support of the Mongol nobility.
In the Kerebu, the spread of Nestorianism was closely related to the rise of Wang Han. It is said that in his youth, Wang Han was helped by a Nestorian monk who not only healed his injuries but also taught him some military and political wisdom. This experience made Wang Han have a good impression of Nestorianism and provided favorable conditions for the spread of Nestorianism in the Kerebu.
The situation is slightly different in the Nabarian Division. The Naiban tribe was more closely related to the Western Liao, and many Naiban nobles had intermarriage relations with the Western Liao royal family. This political alliance also fosters cultural and religious exchanges. The Nestorian culture of Western Liao infiltrated the upper class of the Naiban tribe with these intermarriages.
It is worth noting that the spread of Nestorianism in the Mongolian steppe was not a one-way cultural import, but a deep integration with the local culture. The Nestorians combined the teachings of Christianity with the traditional beliefs of the Mongols to create a unique form of religion. For example, they liken Jesus to a "miracle doctor," which dovetails with the shaman image in the traditional Mongol beliefs.
This localized Nestorian religion not only integrates with traditional Mongolian culture in terms of belief content, but also makes adjustments in ritual and organizational forms. They adopted the tents familiar to the nomads as their churches, incorporating traditional crosses into Mongolian-style decorations. These practices greatly reduced the psychological barriers to the Mongols' acceptance of the new religion.
Over time, Nestorianism gradually gained a foothold in the Kereh and Naiban tribes. By the time Genghis Khan unified the Mongolian steppes, the rulers of the two tribes were already devout Nestorians. They not only followed the Nestorian teachings in their personal lives, but also reflected the influence of Nestorian in their political decisions.
However, the spread of Nestorianism was not without resistance. Traditional shamanic forces are wary of this foreign religion. Some conservative tribal leaders felt that accepting the Nestian Church weakened their authority. To a certain extent, this contradiction affected the further expansion of Nestorianism.
Despite this, the spread of Nestorianism in the Mongolian plateau still achieved remarkable success. It not only changed the religious outlook of the Kereh and Naman, but also injected new elements into Mongolian culture. This pattern of religious pluralism laid the foundation for the religious policy of the Mongol Empire in the future, and also opened up new channels for cultural exchanges between the East and the West.
The influence of Nestorianism on grassland culture
The spread of Nestorianism on the Mongolian Plateau not only changed the religious beliefs of the Kereh and Naiban tribes, but also profoundly affected the entire steppe culture. This influence encompasses many aspects such as politics, military, economy, and art, and has injected new vitality into Mongolian culture.
At the political level, the introduction of Nestorianism brought new ideas of governance to Mongolian society. Nestorian Buddhism's emphasis on "loving one's neighbor as oneself" and "being kind to the weak" alleviated the cruelty of Mongolian society to a certain extent. In the Kerebu, for example, Wang Han issued a decree prohibiting the indiscriminate killing of captives and slaves, a far cry from traditional steppe customs. This practice not only embodies the humanitarian spirit of Nestorianism, but also provides a reference for Genghis Khan's later formulation of the "Great Zaza" legal code.
On the military side, the influence of Nestorianism was equally significant. Many of the Nestorian missionaries came from Western Asia, and they brought with them advanced military techniques and tactics. For example, in many battles with the Western Liao, the Naiban tribe used siege techniques originating from the Middle East. The introduction of these new technologies greatly improved the combat capability of the Mongolian army and laid a technical foundation for the future Mongol expedition to the west.
In the economic sphere, the spread of Nestorianism facilitated trade between Mongolia and the West. Many Nestorian merchants became an important link between East and West. Not only did they bring with them luxus goods such as silk and spices, but they also introduced some advanced agricultural and handicraft techniques. For example, in some settlements of the Kereh tribe, there have been cases of vegetables being grown using irrigation techniques introduced by Nestorian monks. This diversification of economic activities has strengthened the economic strength of Mongolian society.
The transformation in the field of art is particularly remarkable. The introduction of Nestorianism brought new themes and forms of expression to Mongolian art. In some of the sites of the Kereh and Naiban tribes, archaeologists have found artworks that blend elements of Nestorianism with traditional Mongolian styles. For example, some gold and silver vessels have traditional steppe animal ornaments as well as Nestorian symbols such as crosses and angels. This artistic fusion reflects the inclusiveness and innovation of Mongolian culture.
In terms of language, the spread of Nestorianism also had a profound impact. In order to spread the teachings, the Nestorian missionaries translated a large number of religious scriptures. This process enriches the vocabulary of the Mongolian language, especially in terms of abstract concepts and philosophical ideas. For example, concepts such as "heaven" and "hell" were introduced into the Mongolian language during this period. In addition, the Syriac script used by Nestorianism also influenced the creation of the later Mongolian script.
In everyday life, the influence of Nestorianism is equally profound. Some of the living customs that originated from Nestorianism were adopted and preserved by the Mongols. For example, in the Ministry of Christians, people began to celebrate important festivals similar to Christian ceremonies. Some Nestorian dietary taboos, such as the abstinence from eating pork, were also adopted by some Mongols. These changes, although subtle, reflect the infiltration of Nestorianism into the steppe way of life.
In terms of education, the introduction of Nestorianism brought a new body of knowledge to Mongolian society. Nestorian monasteries were not only religious sites, but also centers for the dissemination of knowledge. Here, the children of the Mongolian nobility not only learned religious knowledge, but also came into contact with Western sciences such as astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. This educational model cultivated a group of Mongolian elites with an international perspective, which contributed to the talent pool of the later Mongol Empire.
However, the influence of Nestorianism on grassland culture was not all positive. With the spread of Nestorianism, traditional shamanism was challenged. Religious conflicts have arisen in some areas, affecting social stability. For example, in the Naiban tribe, there were clashes between Nestorians and shamans. This conflict is not only a religious one, but also a reflection of the collision of old and new cultures.
In addition, the introduction of Nestorianism also changed the power structure of grassland society to a certain extent. With the popularity of Nestorianism among the upper classes, some Nestorian monks gained high social status and even participated in political decision-making. This change caused discontent among the traditional aristocracy and became a potential social contradiction.
Nonetheless, the influence of Nestorianism on grassland culture was generally positive. It not only enriches the connotation of Mongolian culture, but also injects new vitality into the development of Mongolian society. More importantly, the introduction of Nestorianism opened a new window for the Mongols to understand the world and laid the cultural foundation for the rise of the Mongol Empire.
In the Kereh and Naiman tribes, the influence of Nestorianism was particularly far-reaching. These two tribes were culturally more open and advanced because of their acceptance of Nestorianism. This cultural predominance contributed to their rise in steppe politics to a certain extent. When Genghis Khan began to unify Mongolia, the cultural background of the Kereh and Naiban tribes gave them an important place in the new political landscape.
The unification of Genghis Khan and the fate of the two tribes
Genghis Khan's rise came at a time when the political landscape on the Mongolian plateau had changed dramatically. As the main believers of Nestorianism, the Kereb and Naiban tribes played a key role in the unification movement that swept the steppes, and their fortunes took a dramatic turn as a result.
In 1206 A.D., Temujin was elected by the tribes to ascend the throne and became Khan, called Genghis Khan. This event marked the beginning of the process of Mongolian reunification. However, the road to reunification has not been easy. Genghis Khan's first challenge was how to deal with the Kereh and Naiban tribes.
The Kereb were one of the most powerful tribes on the Mongolian plateau at the time. Its leader, Wang Han, was once Temujin's ally and father-in-law, but the relationship between the two broke down. Genghis Khan knew that in order to truly unify Mongolia, he had to deal with the strong enemy of the Kereb tribe first.
In 1203 A.D., Genghis Khan launched an attack on the Kereb. This battle is known as the "Battle of Harahurim". In the early days of the war, the Kerebu caused a lot of trouble to Genghis Khan with its strong military strength and advanced weaponry. However, Genghis Khan took advantage of the contradictions within the Kereh Ministry. He rebelled against some of the generals of the Kereh tribe, the most important of whom was Wang Han's son Nirukun.
Nirukun was a devout Nestorian who believed that Genghis Khan's cause of unification was in line with the Nestorian teachings. In a crucial battle, Nirukun led part of the Kereh army to defect, resulting in a great defeat for Wang Han. Wang Han was forced to flee to Western Xia, where he was later killed by the Tanguts. The Kereh tribe collapsed, and most of its remnants surrendered to Genghis Khan.
The fate of the Nabarian tribe was different. The leader of the Naiban tribe, Zamuhe, was Temujin's brother and brother, and the two once started a business together. However, as Temujin's power grew, so did the relationship between the two. In 1201 A.D., Zamuh was elected "Gul Khan" and fought against Temujin.
After Genghis Khan unified Mongolia, Zamuhe became the last opponent. In 1205 AD, Genghis Khan launched a final encirclement of Zamuhe. In this battle, the Naiban tribe showed a stubborn spirit of resistance. Taking advantage of the influence of the Nestorian religion in the Naiban tribe, Zamuhe described the war as a holy war to "defend the faith", which inspired the fighting spirit of the people.
However, in the face of Genghis Khan's strong military strength, the Nabarian tribe was ultimately defeated. Zamuhe was forced to flee and was eventually betrayed by his subordinates and handed over to Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan remembered the old relationship and wanted to pardon Zamuhe, but Zamuhe insisted that it be dealt with according to ancient Mongolian law. Eventually, Zamuhe was executed, and the Naiban tribe disintegrated.
The fall of the Kereb and Naiban tribes marked the disappearance of the last two powerful Nestorian tribes on the Mongolian plateau. However, this did not mean that Nestorianism's influence in Mongolia was over. On the contrary, Genghis Khan's policy towards these two tribes laid the foundation for the development of Nestorianism during the Mongol Empire.
Genghis Khan knew that force alone was not enough to effectively rule over these once-formidable enemies. He took a series of measures to pacify the remnants of the Kereh and Naiban tribes. First, he massively activated the nobles and generals of the two tribes, allowing them to occupy important positions in the new regime. For example, Yelu Chucai of the Kereb later became the prime minister of the Mongol Empire and made a great contribution to the governance of the empire.
Secondly, Genghis Khan respected the religious beliefs of these two tribes. He not only allowed the Nestorians to preach freely, but also gave some privileges to the Nestorian church. For example, Nestorian monks were exempted from taxes and allowed to preach in the army. This policy of religious tolerance led many Nestorians to willingly serve the Mongol Empire.
In addition, Genghis Khan also absorbed some advanced culture and technology from the Kereh and Naiban tribes. For example, he adopted some of the military techniques of the Kereh Ministry and drew on the administrative experience of the Naiban Ministry. This cultural fusion not only strengthened the Mongol Empire, but also laid the cultural foundation for what would become a worldwide empire.
However, the destruction of the Kereb and Naiban tribes also had some negative consequences. First of all, the disappearance of these two tribes, which were the main propagators of Nestorianism, led to a significant decline in the influence of Nestorianism in the grasslands. Although Nestorianism was not banned, it lost the support of powerful tribes, and its momentum weakened significantly.
Second, the disintegration of the Kereh and Naiban tribes led to the displacement of many Nestorians. Some Nestorians chose to move westward, to Central and West Asia. These exiles later served as guides and interpreters during the Mongol Empire's expeditions to the west, and to a certain extent promoted cultural exchanges between the East and the West.
In general, although Genghis Khan failed to unify Mongolia, their cultural heritage was not completely lost. Instead, through integration with the Mongol Empire, the Nestorian culture of these two tribes was able to exert its influence on a wider stage. The continuation and transformation of this culture became an important part of the multicultural character of the Mongol Empire.
The development of Nestorianism during the Mongol Empire
With the unification of the Mongolian Plateau by Genghis Khan, the Kereh and Naiban tribes disappeared as independent political entities, but Nestorianism did not decline with them. On the contrary, under the patronage of the Mongol Empire, Nestorianism ushered in new opportunities for development, and its influence expanded to an unprecedented breadth.
During the Mongol Empire, the development of Nestorianism was mainly manifested in the following aspects:
First, Nestorianism gained an important position among the Mongol ruling class. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, married a Nestorian princess who played an important role in the court of the Golden Horde. She not only influenced the religious policies of Jochi, but also provided strong support for the spread of Nestorianism in the Golden Horde. For example, in the city of Sarai (near present-day Volgograd, Russia), archaeologists have found a large number of gold and silver vessels bearing Nestorian symbols, which are most likely related to the royal family.
Second, the Nestorians played an important role in the politics and military of the Mongol Empire. Many Nestorian generals and officials, who had previously belonged to the Kereh and Naiban tribes, were used in the new regime by virtue of their talent and loyalty. For example, Yelu Chucai, a former Kereb of the tribe, became prime minister of the Mongol Empire, and he not only played an important role in politics, but also actively promoted the harmony between Nestorianism and other religions. On the military front, some Nestorian generals were given important positions for their exploits in the Western Expedition. For example, the famous Nestorian general Kipchak was awarded the title of Ten Thousand Households for his great contribution to the conquest of Persia.
Third, Nestorianism spread widely within the borders of the Mongol Empire. The rule of the Mongol Empire provided unprecedented conditions for the spread of Nestorianism. Nestorian missionaries were free to preach within the empire, and could even accompany the army on expeditions to the west. In Central Asia, especially in present-day Xinjiang and Kazakhstan, a large number of Nestorian relics have been excavated. For example, at the site of Karajar near Almaty, archaeologists have discovered a well-preserved Nestorian church with frescoes and artifacts that show the fusion of Nestorianism with the local culture.
Fourth, Nestorianism developed a unique cultural form during the Mongol Empire. Thanks to the Mongol Empire's policy of tolerance, Nestorianism was able to exchange and integrate with other religions such as Buddhism and Islam. Nowhere is this cultural mix more evident than in the arts. For example, on the tombstones of Nestorian in the Yuan Dynasty, it is common to see the coexistence of Nestorian crosses with symbols such as the Buddhist lotus flower and the Islamic crescent. This artistic fusion reflects the diversity of religious and cultural cultures during the Mongol Empire.
Fifth, Nestorianism made an important contribution to cultural exchanges between the East and the West during the Mongol Empire. Many Nestorians were multilingual, and became an important link between East and West. For example, the famous Nestorian monk Laban Sauma visited Europe as an envoy to the Mongol Empire, and his travelogue "Travels in the West" provides us with valuable historical information. In addition, some Nestorians also participated in the creation of the Mongolian script, such as Tata Tonga in the time of Genghis Khan, who was proficient in many languages and made important contributions to the creation of the Mongolian script.
However, the development of Nestorianism during the Mongol Empire also faced some challenges. First, as the Mongol rulers gradually embraced other religions, especially Islam and Buddhism, Nestorianism's position began to be threatened. In the Ilkhanate, for example, the ruler Hülegü was initially very friendly to Nestorianism, and it was even rumored that he himself was a Nestorian. However, by the time of Abaka Khan, the influence of Islam began to grow, and the status of Nestorianism gradually declined.
Second, there was also a split within Nestorianism. As Nestorianism spread in different regions, the ties between the Nestino churches gradually weakened, and there were differences in doctrine and rituals. This split weakened Nestorianism as a whole, making it difficult for it to cope with challenges from other religions.
In addition, the political turmoil in the later period of the Mongol Empire also adversely affected the development of Nestorianism. As the empire split, Nestorianism lost its umbrella of unity and suffered different fates in different khanates. In the Ilkhanate, for example, the situation of the Nestorians became increasingly difficult as the rulers converted to Islam. In the Central Plains, the rulers of the late Yuan dynasty were not as friendly to Nestorianism as they were in the early period.
Nevertheless, the development of Nestorianism during the Mongol Empire remained a high point in its history. During this period, Nestorianism not only expanded geographically to an unprecedented extent, but also culturally blended with multiple civilizations. Although this prosperity did not last in the end, Nestorianism's experience during the Mongol Empire provides a unique perspective on how to understand the cultural exchange between East and West in the Middle Ages.
The fall of the Mongol Empire marked the end of a golden age of Nestorian development in Central and East Asia. However, the cultural heritage accumulated by Nestorianism during this period did not disappear completely. In some remote areas of Central Asia, the influence of Nestorianism continued into modern times. For example, in some parts of Xinjiang, there were traces of Nestorianism until the end of the 19th century. These remnants of Nestorian communities have become an important clue for the study of cultural exchanges between the East and the West in the Middle Ages.