Italian War of Independence

Italy was the heart of the ancient Roman Empire, the birthplace of the Renaissance movement, and the cradle of European capitalism. However, since the Middle Ages, it has been divided and in civil strife for a long time. From the 16th century onwards, Spain, Austria and France invaded Italy. The Italian people have endured centuries of heroic struggle for national independence and national unity. By the middle of the 19th century, the war of national liberation that would sweep across the entire territory of Italy was approaching.

First War of Independence (1848-1849). This war was an important part of the bourgeois revolution in Europe in 1848. From January to August 1848, the revolutionary situation was rising, and the states were forced to declare war on Austria under the impetus of the popular movement. However, the monarchs of various states did not fight resolutely, and even tried every possible way to obstruct and sabotage, which led to the defeat of the war against Austria. In January 1848, the capital of Sicily was the first to break out in a popular uprising, which opened the prelude to the Italian War of Independence. In March, the people of Milan revolted and liberated Milan, and the people of Venice revolted and proclaimed the independent Republic of Venice. Under the impact of the wave of popular uprisings in various places, the monarchs of various states were forced to fight against Austria. However, by the end of April, the Pope of Rome called for the cessation of the war against Austria and the withdrawal of troops from the front.

In May, the Sicilian uprising was suppressed, and the rebellion of the monarchs of the states gave Austria a respite. In June, the Austrians switched to a counteroffensive after receiving reinforcements. In July, the Austrians recaptured Milan and laid siege to the city of Venice. On 9 August, the Kingdom of Sardinia signed an armistice with Austria, ceding Lombardy, Venice, Parma, and Moderna to Austria. The war against Austria was lost, and the war of independence entered a new stage in which the bourgeois democrats seized the leadership.

From August 1848 to August 1849, the defeat of the Austrian war aroused the anger of the Italian people, and the bourgeois democrats seized the leadership of the independence movement, pushing the war to a climax. The people of Venice held on to the city, and the people of Tuscany revolted and established a republic. At the beginning of 1849, the Roman Republic was established. In March 1849, the king of the Kingdom of Sardinia decided to re-wage war against Austria, but the Austrian army of 70,000 people inflicted heavy losses on the Sardinian army, and the war of the Kingdom of Sardinia against Austria was completely lost. The Austrians took advantage of the victory and drove straight in.

The Pope of Rome appealed to the Catholic countries of Europe for help, and France, Austria, Spain and other countries gathered in Gaeta to formulate a joint plan to intervene in the Roman Republic. In April, the French army of 10,000 troops advanced towards Rome, the Austrian army invaded Bologna, and the western army approached the south of Rome, forming a situation of encirclement and annihilation of Rome. Garibaldi led the Republican Army to thwart enemy attacks several times and delayed the enemy's advance. The Roman Republic was temporarily turned from a state of affairs to peace. In June, after receiving reinforcements from the French, the two sides fought fiercely outside Rome. On June 23, the French army launched a general offensive, and the Republican army suffered heavy losses and was unable to fight again. On 1 July, the parliament decided to stop fighting and withdraw from Rome, and on 3 July, the French army marched into Rome. On August 22, 1849, the city of Venice fell to the Austrians. Thus ended the First War of Independence.

Second War of Independence (1859-1860). The defeat of the First War of Independence dealt a heavy blow to the bourgeois democrats. In the 50s, the democrats continued to divide and disintegrate, and the bourgeois liberals came into being. At the beginning of April 1859, the Sardinian army began to mobilize, and at the end of the month, the Austrian army began to attack, and war broke out. At the end of May, the two sides engaged in the first battle, the coalition forces won, Garibaldi led the volunteers deep behind the enemy, won the battle, liberated a large area, the masses rose up, joined the volunteers, Garibaldi's strength continued to grow, and effectively contained the Austrian army's combat operations. In June, the Allied forces suffered heavy losses, including the expulsion of the Austrians from Lombardy. The victory in the Austrian war gave impetus to the upsurge of the Italian national liberation movement, and the popular uprising swept through northern and central Italy. In July, Garibaldi liberated all of Sicily in preparation for the invasion of the Italian mainland. At the beginning of August, Garibaldi began to march into Naples; at dawn on August 19, he landed in Calabria; on the 20th, he launched the Battle of Lezzo; after the Battle of Lezzo, Garibaldi swung his army north to take Naples; in September, he entered the city of Naples, and the defenders of the kingdom surrendered without a fight; in October, Garibaldi fought a fierce battle with the defenders of Sicily, due to the absolute superiority of the enemy forces, Garibaldi suffered heavy casualties and inflicted heavy losses on the defenders, and the defenders retreated and held their positions; in early November, the southern region was declared to be annexed to the province of Sardinia. By March 1861, Italy had been largely unified.

Third War of Independence (1866-1870). After the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy, it attempted to seize Venice through dynastic wars. In April 1866, a sharp conflict arose between Prussia and Austria over the leadership of German unity. In April 1866, Prussia and Italy formed an anti-Austrian military alliance, and in June, the Austro-Prussian War broke out, Italy took the opportunity to declare war on Austria, and the Third War of Independence broke out. On 24 June, the Austrian and Italian armies engaged in a large-scale battle at Custoza, and the Italian army suffered heavy losses and was forced to withdraw to the Mincho River.

At the same time, the main forces of the Austrian army withdrew to their homeland, and the Italian army was spared a blow. Garibaldi assisted the government forces in the battle, penetrated deep behind enemy lines, and won even battles. However, under pressure from Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck, the Italian government forced Garibaldi to withdraw from South Tyrol, a strategic stronghold of the Austrian army, and the area returned to Austrian hands. At the same time, the Austrian-Italian navy fought a desperate naval battle in the waters near the Adriatic Sea, the Italian army suffered heavy losses, 3 armored ships were sunk, and the rest of the ships were withdrawn from the battle. The Austrians suffered very little losses. After the end of the Austro-Italian War, Garibaldi campaigned for the liberation of Rome. In October 1866, Garibaldi led his army to defeat a papal force and capture the fortress of Monterotondo. In order to prevent Garibaldi from attacking Rome, Napoleon III of France sent an expeditionary force to land at Civitavecchia via the road, and entered Rome on October 26. On November 3, Garibaldi led his troops to Mentana,

Blocked by French and Papal troops. Due to the fact that the French army was equipped with new rifles and had heavy firepower, Garibaldi's division was heavily damaged, and the advance into Rome was again blocked.

In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian War broke out, and Napoleon III was forced to withdraw his French troops in Rome. On 2 September, the French army was defeated at the Battle of Sedan, and Napoleon III became a prisoner. The government of the Kingdom of Italy no longer feared French interference, and sent an army of 60,000 men day and night to seize Rome before Garibaldi's department. On 20 September, government forces and Garibaldi's troops marched into Rome at the same time. Pope Pius IX ordered the cessation of resistance and took refuge in the Vatican. At this point, the great cause of Italian unification was finally completed. In January 1871, the capital of the Kingdom of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.

The independence and reunification of Italy went through a long, arduous and tortuous process of struggle, which aroused the awakening of the Italian nation. The final victory of the War of Independence from 1848 to 1870 freed Italy from its long-term oppression and division by foreign nationalities, removed obstacles to the development of capitalism, and greatly promoted the progress of history.

In the Italian War of Independence, there was always a contradiction and struggle between the bourgeois democrats and the liberals. Democrats advocate a "bottom-up" path, and liberals advocate a "top-down" path. Due to the weakness of the democratic faction and the lack of internal unity, the "bottom-up" path does not work. However, the liberals were strong and politically mature, and thus became the leading force in the War of Independence.

The Italian War of Independence produced outstanding representatives, among whom Garibaldi was the first to be promoted. Garibaldi gained a wealth of experience through a series of military practice activities before the war. In the three wars of independence, he commanded Ruoding, and repeatedly defeated the enemy forces with superior troops, and achieved brilliant results. He was good at carrying forward the political superiority of the revolutionary army, and it was well deserved that he went deep behind enemy lines to carry out tours. The set of strategies and tactics he created in military practice is a precious spiritual wealth for the people of Italy and even the whole world.

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