The Qing Dynasty (1616-1911) was the last feudal dynasty in China, and it went through 12 emperors. The Qing Dynasty originated from the Houjin founded by Nurhachi, with a history of 296 years. After Huang Taiji changed the name of the country to the Qing Dynasty, the national fortune lasted for 276 years until the Qing Dynasty entered the customs and established the national government. After this, the Qing Dynasty ruled for about 268 years.
In 1616, Nurhachi founded the Later Jin, Dingyuan Mandate of Heaven, known as the Jin State or Houjin, and honored the title of the wise emperor of the overlay countries, and proclaimed himself the Emperor of the Mandate of Heaven. In 1636, Huang Taiji was proclaimed emperor and changed the name of the country to the Qing Dynasty. In 1644, Wu Sangui surrendered to the Qing Dynasty, and Dolgon led troops into the customs. In the following 20 years, the Qing Dynasty pacified the Dashun, Daxi, and Southern Ming regimes. During the Kangxi period, Taiwan was unified and the whole country was unified. The three dynasties of Kang Yongqian reached their peak and achieved unprecedented development achievements. The land has been reclaimed and the products are abundant. The economy and society of small-scale farmers are prosperous and stable, and the country is strong. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty was repeatedly invaded by foreign enemies. In order to maintain the integrity of territorial sovereignty, the Qing Dynasty carried out modernization reforms such as the Westernization Movement and the Wuxu Reform. On February 12, 1912, Pu Yi abdicated and issued the edict of abdication of the Qing Emperor, and the Qing Dynasty collapsed.
During the Qing Dynasty, a unified multi-ethnic state was consolidated and developed. During the Qianlong period, the pattern of China as a unified multi-ethnic world power was determined. In its heyday, the Qing Dynasty extended its territory to the Green Mountains and Lake Balkhash in the west, the Tangnu Ulianghai in the northwest, Mobei and Siberia in the north, the Pacific Ocean (including Sakhalin Island) in the east, and the Nansha Islands in the south, containing more than 50 ethnic groups, unprecedented unity.
At this time, the absolutism of ancient China was at its peak. In the early Qing Dynasty, agriculture and commerce developed, and prosperous commercial cities appeared in the south of the Yangtze River, and large merchant gangs appeared in the whole country. On this basis, the population has swelled to 400 million, accounting for nearly half of the world's population.
In 1605, Nurhachi was first called "Jianzhou State", also known as "King", and the following year he was called "Kundulun Khan" (Respectful Khan). In 1616, Nurhachi was called "the wise emperor of the overlying countries", called Dajin, or Houjin, and called himself "Northern Dynasty". The Qing generation recognized itself as Manchukuo.
In 1636, Huang Taiji proclaimed himself emperor and changed the name of the country to "Great Qing". The Treaty of Nebuchu, signed during the Kangxi period, was the first international treaty in Chinese history with "China" as a sovereign state. Especially since the middle of the Qing Dynasty, the name of another sovereign state, "China" or "Zhonghua" and "Great Qing State" has the same and interchangeable meaning, which directly corresponds to words such as China, and is used by Western countries in the sense of equivalent sovereign treaty states, and has been customarily used and "recognized" in the Chinese-foreign versions of various international treaties. The Qing Dynasty is explicitly stated as "China" in the Qing Shilu, which indicates that in the official context, "China" or the Qing Dynasty has been recognized by most people and has become a conscious norm.
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According to legend, Manchuria originated at the foot of the Bukuli Mountains in the northeastern part of Changbai Mountain. In the early years of the Ming Dynasty, the Jurchen tribe was divided into three major tribes: the Jianzhou Jurchen, the Haixi Jurchen, and the Savage Jurchen. Since then, according to the geographical location, it has been refined into four parts: Jianzhou, Changbai, Donghai and Hulun. The ruler of the Qing Dynasty, Aixinjue Luo, came from the tribe of Timur, the Jurchen Mengge of Jianzhou. Meng's brother Timur was the commander of the Ming Dynasty's Jianzhou Left Guard, and in 1433, he was killed in conflict with other tribes. In 1440, Jianzhou moved south. In 1442, the Ming Dynasty added the right guard of Jianzhou, which was collectively known as the "Three Guards of Jianzhou". After moving south, the relationship between the Jianzhou Jurchens and the Ming Dynasty became increasingly close, and the social productivity increased steadily and the economy prospered.
In 1583, the Ming Dynasty attacked the Atai garrison of Gulzhai and killed Nurhachi's grandfather Jue Chang'an and his father Takshi. Nurhachi raised an army and gathered his troops, slew Nikanwailan, and captured the city of Tulun. In the first month of the second year, Nurhachi attacked Li Dai in Zhaojia City and successfully captured Li Dai. Another year later, in 1586, Nurhachi conquered Erhun, and Nikan Wailan was forced to flee to the Ming Dynasty. The following year, in 1587, Nurhachi founded the city of Foala, which became the political and military center of the Jurchens. In 1588, he successfully conquered Wanyan (Wangjia) City, that is, destroyed the last tribe of the Jianzhou Jurchens, the Wanyan Division, and successfully unified the Jianzhou Jurchens. In June of the same year, Nurhachi called himself "Shulebel".
The real strength of the Haixi woman is strong, and Nurhachi adopts the strategy of long-distance and close attack, division and disintegration, and each defeat. In September 1593, when Nurhachi went on an eastward expedition, Buzhai, the leader of the Yehe tribe of the Jurchens in Haixi, joined forces with nine tribes, including Ula, Huifa, Hada and Horqin of Mongolia, to attack Jianzhou. The two sides fought in the Gule Mountain, in this battle, Nurhachi concentrated his forces to fight the main force, and finally defeated the nine-part coalition army, Buzhai was beheaded, and the leader of the Ula tribe, Buzhantai, was captured, laying the foundation for the subsequent conquest war. From the first month of the 26th year of Wanli to November of the 43rd year, Nurhachi successively conquered Huye Road, Namdulu, Suifen, Ningguta, Nimatsa, Yalan, Wuerguchen, Mulun, Xilin and other roads of the Jurchen in the East China Sea, and occupied the city of East Ehekulun. The Kurkha Department of the East China Sea also joined one after another. In the forty-first year of Wanli, Jianzhou captured the city of Ula, and Ula was destroyed. At the same time, Nurhachi built a city, set up ministers, set up laws, handled lawsuits, and established the Eight Banners system. The Eight Banners system integrates the Jurchens into formation, integrating the soldiers and the people, and is an organization that can both fight and produce. This system promoted the development of Jurchen society and consolidated Nurhachi's dominance.
In 1616, Nurhachi founded Houjin in Hetuala, established the Mandate of Heaven, and proclaimed himself the Emperor of the Mandate of Heaven, the Emperor of the Mandate of Heaven. In 1618, Nurhachi attacked the Ming Dynasty under the banner of the "Seven Hatreds". In 1619, the Ming Dynasty gathered 200,000 elite troops from all over the country and allied troops such as Korea, known as 470,000, and marched into Liaodong, divided into four routes. Nurhachi led his army to defeat the Ming army of the Three Routes at Sarhu, annihilating about 50,000 enemies and capturing many supplies. Only Li Rubai, who was slow to move, was defeated all the way and survived. After that, the Ming Dynasty's rule over the northeast collapsed. and destroy Yehe and unify the Haixi Jurchens.
When Nurhachi founded the country, there were still tribes of the "savages" in the East China Sea who had not yet returned to obedience. In 1617, Nurhachi sent 400 troops to collect the coastal and island provinces. In 1618, the leader of the Huerha tribe led 100 households to surrender, and Nurha gave it generously. In 1619 the ministries surrendered. The people who were captured by each ministry were all incorporated into the Eight Banners. Surrender to the tribe, stay where you are, and pay tribute to Houjin. The "Manchu Old Files" records the situation in the fourth year of the Mandate of Heaven (1619): "From the east of the Ming Kingdom to the seashore, the north of Korea, the south of Mongolia, and the countries (ministries) that speak the Jurchen language have all been pacified in that year. "Nurhachi conquered the Jurchen tribes and was able to attack the Ming Dynasty with all his might.
After the Battle of Salhu, Houjin recaptured Kaiyuan and Tieling. In 1621, Nurhachi captured Shenyang and Liaoyang, and swept more than 70 cities in Liaodong in a few years. In 1621, Nurhachi moved his capital to Liaoyang and built the city of Tokyo. In 1622, he captured Guangning, an important town in western Liaoning. Subsequently, more than 40 castles such as Yizhou, Jinzhou, and Daling River were trapped. Xiong Tingbi and Wang Huazhen led the remnants of the Ming army and hundreds of thousands of displaced people to flee to Shanhaiguan. In the spring of 1625, Nurhachi moved his capital to Shenyang, which became the center of Later Jin rule. However, Nurhachi was wounded by Ming artillery in the Battle of Ningyuan in 1626 and died soon after.
Establishment of the Great Qing Dynasty
After Nurhachi's death, his eighth son, Emperor Taiji, succeeded to the throne, but the environment in which Houjin lived at that time was very dangerous. Externally, it was surrounded by the Ming Dynasty, Mongolia, and Korea, while internally, the contradictions intensified due to the division of power among the nobles. However, Huang Taiji steadily established a state management system and gradually replaced the state power of the Eight Banners system. At the same time, he maintained an offensive against the Ming Dynasty and allied with the Mongol tribes, growing in strength.
At home, Huang Taiji followed the historical trend and promoted the feudalization process of the Later Jin regime. After he succeeded to the throne, he issued the "Manchu and Han Separate Residence Order", emphasizing that "the key to governing the country is not to first settle the people", announcing that "the unity of Manchu and Han will not lead to similarities and differences", and implementing the policy of "making up households for the people", and withdrawing most of the Han people from the village fields and "dividing the tun and living separately". Hermes-Epitek was able to restore its status as a feudal freedman, alleviating ethnic contradictions, and gradually stabilizing society. He also reversed his father's policy of massacring literati and held imperial examinations that year. In the sixth year of Tiancong (1632), Huang Taiji abolished the old system of "sitting in the south with the three major bailes" and managing the government together, and changed it to "sit alone in the south", highlighting the supremacy of the Khan. Subsequently, he weakened the dissidents, eliminated the three major Baylor forces that threatened the Khan's throne, and consolidated the Khan's power. Imitating the system of the Lighting Dynasty, three inner courts and six ministries were set up, and "the affairs of the Imperial Department of the King Baylor were stopped" to deal with government affairs alone. In addition, he established the Metropolitan Procuratorate and the Imperial Domain, and established a complete set of state institutions.
Externally, Huang Taiji continued to implement the policy of attacking the Ming Dynasty. From the third year of Tiancong (1629) to the following year, Huang Taiji led his army from Mongolia to the interior of the Ming Dynasty when the Guanningjin defense line was difficult to overcome, and attacked Beijing. Shi counter-scheming got rid of Yuan Chonghuan, the Liao Governor of Ming Ji. Huang Taiji raised troops to attack Korea again.
On the eighth day of the first month of 1627, he appointed six beylors, including Amin, Yuetuo, and Zilharang, to command 30,000 troops to attack Korea. In less than half a month, they occupied most of Korea, occupied the old capital of Pyongyang, and forced the Korean king Yi Liang to sign an alliance under the city. Lin Dan Khan was the main obstacle to the Later Jin's unification of Southern Mongolia, so on the one hand, the Later Jin tried to win the alliance between Korqin and other Beile and the Later Jin to deal with the raids of Lin Dan Khan, divide and disintegrate the subordinates of Lin Dan Khan, and on the other hand, actively prepare for a large-scale attack.
In the eighth year of Tiancong (1634), Lin Dan Khan died in Qinghai. In the following year (1635), the Houjin army continued to attack the remnants of Chahar, and Ezhe, the son of Lin Dan Khan, surrendered to Houjin with his mother's dedication of the jade seal of the country. The Ordos Ministry was also merged by Houjin. At this point, all southern Mongolia was unified in Houjin.
In 1635, Huang Taiji changed the old clan "Zhushen" (Jurchen) to "Manchuria". In May of the following year, Yu Shengjing ascended the throne and changed the country name "Jin" to "Daqing", and at the same time established the year name as Chongde, respecting him as "Emperor Kuanwen Rensheng". In 1637, the Joseon king Yi was forced to surrender, promising to sever ties with the Ming Dynasty and send the prince to Shengjing as a hostage, and the Joseon Dynasty was officially surrendered to the Qing Dynasty. At this time, there were still tribes such as Huerha, Varka, Solon, and Daur in the Heilongjiang River Basin, scattered among the mountains and rivers. In 1634, the Daur native Bardazi led his troops to join Houjin.
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In 1639, the Qing Dynasty sent Suohai and others to the expedition, and the following year defeated the Bomu Bogol soldiers and conquered the city of Yaksa. In 1641, he sent Sitku and others to pursue him, and Bomu Bogol was captured at Chilotai (near Chita). Sauron was incorporated into the Eight Banners and called "New Manchuria". During this period, the Qing army conquered Uzara, Niman, and Akuri. The tribes that originally belonged to the Jurchens of the East China Sea also came under the rule of the Qing Dynasty. After Huang Taiji conquered Mongol, he immediately sent envoys to the three khans of Khalkha Mongolia in Mobei to negotiate peace. In November 1636, the Chechen Khan sent six people, including the Wei Lama, accompanied by 156 people to Shengjing to pay homage to the Emperor Taiji. In 1638, Tushetu Khan, Chechen Khan, and Zasaktu Khan all sent envoys to pay tribute to the Qing Dynasty, and agreed to pay tribute to eight white horses and one white camel every year thereafter, called "Nine White Tribute". The Three Khans of Mobei Mongolia (Outer Mongolia) thus became the vassal of the Qing Dynasty.
From March of the fifth year of Chongde (1640), the Battle of Songjin was launched. The Ming court sent Hong Chengchou, the governor of Jiliao, to lead an army of 130,000 to reinforce Jinzhou Zu Dashou. Huang Taiji came to command. On February 18, the seventh year of Chongde (1642), Songshan City fell, the Ming general Hong Chengchou was captured, and Zu Dashou surrendered in Jinzhou. The Battle of Songjin marked the complete collapse of the Ming Dynasty's defense system in Liaodong, leaving only Ningyuan as an isolated city outside the pass. In 1643, Huang Taiji died of illness and was succeeded by Fu Lin, who was the Shunzhi Emperor and regent by his uncle Dolgon.
Unify the country
In 1644, Li Zicheng captured Beijing, Emperor Chongzhen hanged himself, and Wu Sangui surrendered to the Qing Dynasty. Dolgon led the Eight Banners to defeat Li Zicheng, occupied Jingshi, and made Jingshi the capital of the Qing Dynasty. Emperor Shunzhi worshiped the heavens in the southern suburbs and announced that "Yanjing is hereby determined to sui China", marking the Qing Dynasty as the central dynasty that ruled the whole of China. The Qing Dynasty went south to exterminate the peasant army, and the Southern Ming Dynasty, Dashun and Daxi regimes were established one after another. The new task of the Qing rulers was to flatten the ranks and unify China.
The Qing army invaded Shaanxi in two ways, and the two divisions of Azig and Duoduo attacked Li Zicheng under the leadership of Wu Sangui and Kong Youde. Li retreated to Tongguan from success or failure, abandoned Xi'an and went to Huguang, was attacked on the way, and died in Jiugong Mountain. The Qing army defeated the Hongguang regime of the Southern Ming Dynasty, captured Yangzhou and entered Nanjing on May 16, capturing Zhu Yousong and the Hongguang regime was destroyed. In the third year of Shunzhi (1646), the Qing court ordered Bo Luo to be the general of the expedition to the south and attack Zhu Yihai and Zhu Yujian, the king of Lu. Zhu Yihai fled to the sea, and King Lu's regime died. Zheng Zhilong surrendered to the Qing Dynasty, the Qing army captured and killed Zhu Yujian, and the Longwu regime died.
When the Qing army occupied Beijing and began to attack the Dashun army, Zhang Xianzhong established the Daxi regime in Chengdu in November of that year and took control of Sichuan. In the third year of Shunzhi (1646), the Qing court appointed Haoge, the prince of Su, as the general of Jingyuan, defeated the Hanzhong peasant army, and entered Sichuan in November. Later, Zhang Xianzhong was killed. Then, the Qing army divided its troops and attacked, breaking through more than 130 military camps in Daxi, killing and wounding tens of thousands of people, occupying Sichuan, and the Daxi regime was destroyed. The rest of the troops were led by Sun Kewang, Li Dingguo and others, and transferred to Yunnan and Guizhou to continue to resist the Qing Dynasty. At the same time, after Li Zicheng's death, the remnants of the Dashun Army fought against the Qing Dynasty with He Tengjiao, the governor of Nanming, Huguang, and the governor of Hubei.
In 1652, Li Dingguo led an army of 80,000 troops east out of Guangxi and Guilin. He also invaded Hunan and Guangdong, "two famous kings, and the world shook". Liu Wenxiu also attacked Sichuan and recovered southern Sichuan. The anti-Qing troops of Zhang Huangyan and others on the southeast coast also launched an offensive, and the anti-Qing struggle reached a climax again. At this time, the contradiction between Sun Kewang and Li Dingguo broke out, destroying the good situation. After Sun Kewang surrendered to the Qing Dynasty, Yungui was known to the Qing army. Due to the large anti-Qing forces in South China, the Qing Emperor canonized Wu Sangui, Geng Zhongming and Shang Kexi as kings to guard Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangdong and Fujian, and was known as the "Three Feudatories" in history. In 1659, Wu Sangui led the Qing army into Kunming, Yunnan, and in 1662, Emperor Yongli was killed, and the Southern Ming Dynasty was completely destroyed.
After the Qing court was stabilized, in the seventh year of Shunzhi (1650), Dolgon died, and Emperor Shunzhi took charge of the government in advance. In order to strengthen the imperial power, Emperor Shunzhi abolished the old practice of the princes Baylor managing the affairs of various ministries, and adopted a series of measures to alleviate ethnic contradictions, such as stopping the enclosure of land and relaxing the law on fugitives.
Step into the heyday
In 1661, Kangxi Emperor Xuanye ascended the throne. In the early years of Kangxi, it was assisted by four Manchu ministers. In the eighth year of Kangxi (1669), Emperor Kangxi captured the minister who was in power and worshipped and personally managed the government. Because the secession of the three feudatories seriously affected the unification of the country, in the twelfth year of Kangxi (1673), Emperor Kangxi withdrew the feudal domain, Wu Sangui raised troops against the Qing Dynasty, and the other two feudatories responded one after another, and finally pacified the three feudatories in the 20th year of Kangxi (1681). After the pacification of the rebellion of the three feudatories, the inclusion of Taiwan in the territory was put on the agenda again. In the twenty-second year of Kangxi (1683), Kangxi took Shi Lang as the admiral of the Fujian Navy Division, sent troops to attack Taiwan, and defeated the Zheng navy led by Liu Guoxuan in Penghu, and then surrendered to Zheng Natu in the Ming Dynasty. In the twenty-third year of the Kangxi reign (1684), the Qing government set up a government (Taiwan) and three counties in Taiwan, and Taiwan and the mainland were unified.
In the twenty-fourth year of Kangxi (1685), Emperor Kangxi ordered Peng Chun, the capital commander, to go to Aihui to strengthen the defense of Heilongjiang. In the autumn of the same year, Tsarist Russia again occupied the city of Yaksa. The Qing army defeated the Russian army and curbed its aggressive ambitions. In 1689, the Qing Dynasty signed the Treaty of Nebuchu with representatives of Tsarist Russia, which demarcated the eastern boundary between China and Russia, and the area north of the Heilongjiang River, south of the Trans-Khingan Mountains, and east of the Ussuri River, including Sakhalin Island and other places, were all Chinese territory. In the seventeenth year of the Kangxi reign (1678), Galdan attacked the Khalkha Mongol Tushetu Khan with the support of Russia. Emperor Kangxi three times personally conquered Mobei, the battle of Ulan Butong in the 29th year of Kangxi (1690) broke Galdan, in the summer of the 30th year of Kangxi (1691), Kangxi and Khalkha and the princes of Inner Mongolia gathered in Duolun Norr, known as the "Duolun Alliance" in history, and the three Khalkha tribes returned to the Qing Dynasty. In the thirty-fifth year of Kangxi (1696), Emperor Kangxi once again personally conquered, and the battle of Zhaomoduo defeated the main army of Galdan, and the Galdan army was defeated. During the Kangxi period, the Qing Dynasty incorporated Khalkha Mongolia into the territory, laying the foundation for the pacification of Dzungaria during the Qianlong period.
After Emperor Kangxi became pro-government, he was diligent in government affairs and held the imperial gate to listen to the government. The establishment of the South Study Office weakened the power of the Council of Ministers and the Cabinet of the Parliament, and strengthened the imperial power. Rectify the rule of officials, and restore the evaluation system of Beijing inspection and general planning. A series of measures conducive to socio-economic recovery and development have been adopted. In 1669, the enclosure order was abolished, the enclosure was stopped, and it was stipulated that the enclosed land should be returned to the peasants. In 1671, the time limit for reclamation was relaxed, and there were achievements in reclamation, and different official positions were given, which increased the enthusiasm for reclamation. By the end of the Kangxi Dynasty, the wasteland of the country had basically been opened up. In 1685, it was stipulated that the new acres of land cultivated by the people should be "never allowed to be circled from now on", which restricted the economic expansion of the aristocratic banner owners and favored the self-cultivated farmers. Changed the Zhuangtian of the Ming Dynasty vassal king to "renamed Tian". In 1712, the amount of Ding tax in the 50th year of Kangxi was used as the fixed amount, and the new people did not collect Ding tax, realizing the integration of land and Ding.
During the Kangxi period, Emperor Kangxi paid attention to winning over the Han people. He solemnly declared that he would combine the governance system with the Taoist system, and take Cheng Zhu Lixue as the basis for governing the country. He once held the erudite Hong Confucianism, went to Jiangning to commemorate the filial piety of Ming Taizu, and personally went to Qufu to worship the Confucian Temple. Emperor Kangxi also actively advocated culture and education, and compiled and issued cultural treasures such as "Kangxi Dictionary", "Collection of Ancient and Modern Books", "Pei Wenyun Mansion", "Mathematical Essence", "Kangxi Emperor's Overview" and other cultural treasures. By the time of Qianlong, the silk industry in Jiangning, Suzhou, Hangzhou, Foshan, Guangzhou and other places had been quite prosperous. The cotton weaving industry in the south of the Yangtze River and the porcelain in Jingdezhen have also reached their historical peak. By the middle of the 18th century, the Qing Dynasty's population had increased dramatically.
Connecting the past and the future
In 1722, Kangxi died and Yongzheng succeeded him. In Kangxi's later years, corruption in officialdom was rampant, and Yongzheng severely punished it. During the reign of Yongzheng, a series of measures were promoted to further strengthen the imperial power. He perfected the secret fold system, allowing only officials selected by the emperor to make secret folds. In the seventh year of Yongzheng (1729), due to the use of troops in the northwest, Yongzheng set up a military machine room in Longzongmen, and selected cautious people in the cabinet to be responsible for handling urgent military affairs and assisting the emperor in handling government affairs. They obeyed the emperor's orders directly and knelt down to read the transcript. The establishment of the Military Aircraft Department marked the peak of imperial power in the Qing Dynasty.
Yongzheng continued to pursue the expansionist policies of the Qing Dynasty. In the first year of Yongzheng (1723), Galdan's nephew Arabutan supported the leader of Qinghai and Shuote tribes, Luo Buzang Danjin, to oppose the Qing Dynasty. The Qing Dynasty also occupied part of the Xikang region, and set up ministers in Xining and Lhasa to administer the Qinghai-Tibet region. In addition, the Qing Dynasty annexed the Khalkha Mongols and signed the Treaty of Kyakhta with Tsarist Russia in 1727, which determined the central border between China and Russia. In 1729, Yongzheng ordered Fu Erdan and Yue Zhongqi to divide their troops to fight against Dzungar Khan Galdan Tseling, but they lost in the battle of Hetongbo. In 1732, Galdan Tse made an expedition to the Khalkha Mongols, but was defeated by Tsereng at Hangai Mountain. In 1734, the Qingzhun peace talks were held, with the Altai Mountains as the boundary, and peace was basically achieved in the northwest region.
In order to alleviate class contradictions and promote agricultural production, in the first year of Yongzheng (1723), Yongzheng adopted the suggestion of Li Weijun, the governor of Zhili, and implemented the principle of collecting Ding Yin's land and taxes together, changing the past double collection standards and reducing the burden on farmers. During the Qianlong period, this policy was extended to the whole country. Since then, the population has grown rapidly. Yongzheng also abolished the lowly status and issued the first edict in April 1723 to "open up for good". At the same time that he ordered the opening of the untouchables, he also asked the provinces to check whether there were similar untouchables, and if so, they could also be cheap.
In the minority areas of Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangdong, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei and other provinces, Yongzheng fully implemented the system of "changing the land and returning to the stream", abolished the Tusi system, established prefectures, departments, prefectures, and counties, and dispatched non-hereditary "liuguan" with tenure to manage them. This management system is similar to that of the mainland. Yongzheng's land reform and reintroduction dealt a blow to the hereditary privileges and interests of Tusi, alleviated the burdens and disasters of ethnic minorities in southwest China, and promoted the socio-economic and cultural progress of the region. The series of policies implemented during the 13 years of Yongzheng's reign played a role in connecting the upper and lower generations of the "Kang Yongqian" generation.
Heyday
In August 1735, Yongzheng died of illness, and his second son Hongli ascended the throne as Emperor Qianlong. Under his rule, he made great achievements in civil and military affairs, and contributed to the consolidation of a unified multi-ethnic China and the prosperity of the Qing Dynasty in many ways, but the world was undergoing earth-shaking changes at the same time, and China gradually lagged behind the pace of world development.
In the twelfth year of Qianlong (1747), Qianlong transferred 30,000 troops to attack Dajinchuan in two ways. In the fourteenth year (1749), the Qing army approached the old nest of Shaluoben, and Shaluoben had no choice but to surrender. In the 31st year of Qianlong (1766), the Dajinchuan Tusi rebelled again and repeatedly invaded the neighboring Tusi, and the Qing government finally pacified the Dajinchuan. In 1757, Qianlong defeated the Dzungar nobleman Amur Sana and unified the northern Tianshan Road. In 1759, the size of the Tianshan South Road and the Zhuo Rebellion were pacified. In 1762, General Ili was appointed to govern the entire territory of Xinjiang. Since then, the Qing Dynasty has continuously sent troops to Xinjiang, mainly from the Daur and Manchu ethnic groups in Northeast China and Hebei. These garrisons contributed to the consolidation of the northwestern frontier and the development of the frontier. In 1771, he moved west to the lower reaches of the Volga River in the Moxi Mongolian Turghut Division, and under the leadership of the leader Wu Baxi, he embarked on the road back to China in order to get rid of the rule of Tsarist Russia. They overcame the encirclement and interception of the Tsarist Russian army, went through hardships and traveled thousands of miles, and finally returned to their homeland. The return of the Turks contributed to the consolidation of a unified multi-ethnic state.
In the middle of the Qianlong period, the whole country saw remarkable development in agriculture, handicrafts, and commerce, with the area of cultivated land expanding, the population surging surge, the state treasury full, and the social economy reaching unprecedented prosperity. Taking the cultivated land area as an example, in the 31st year of Qianlong (1766), 780 million mu of land had been reclaimed throughout the country; the population of the whole country increased from more than 140 million in the early years of Qianlong to nearly 300 million in the 60th year of Qianlong (1795); and the state treasury of silver was maintained at between 60 and 70 million taels for a long time, which was almost twice the total annual tax revenue of the whole country. During the Qianlong period, the development of agricultural production was also reflected in the general increase in grain output and the extensive cultivation of high-yield crops. Due to the construction of farmland and water conservancy and the use of intensive farming, the yield per unit area has increased significantly. The entire socio-economic landscape is showing unprecedented prosperity.
Qianlong attached great importance to culture, sorted out the existing documents in the society, collected books extensively, and constantly issued edicts to ask for books. He completed the compilation of the "Unification Chronicles of the Great Qing Dynasty" ordered by Kangxi, and ordered the compilation of the "General Examination of Continued Literature", "General Examination of Imperial Literature", "Great Qing Huidian" and so on. Beginning in 1772, the Qing government began to compile the Siku Quanshu, which lasted for ten years to systematically protect China's historical and cultural heritage. However, in order to maintain his rule, Qianlong strictly controlled his thinking, and took the opportunity to burn a large number of books that did not conform to his ideas during the compilation of books. During the 30th to 60th years of Qianlong, the Qing government's treasury remained at more than 60 million taels for a long time, and cultural undertakings were also very prosperous. At this time, the territory was unprecedentedly vast, the society was prosperous, and the culture was developed, and the "Kangqian Prosperous Era" entered its heyday.
In the late Qianlong period, the Annam Ruan clan attacked the clan system, and the Qing Dynasty met with it. Ruan Hui bowed his head to courtiers, and Emperor Qianlong agreed to reconcile and recognized his status as the monarch of Annam. In addition, in 1792, the Qing Dynasty successfully repelled the Gurkha attack on Tibet. The following year, the Qing Dynasty promulgated the Twenty-Nine Articles of the Regulations on the Rehabilitation of the Aftermath in Tibet, which clearly stipulated Tibet's personnel, administration, finance, military, and diplomatic fields, and fixed them in the form of law. Its core provisions include that the Qing Dynasty has the right to decide on the reincarnation and succession of Tibet's religious leaders, and that all foreign-related affairs in Tibet are handled by the Minister in Tibet. This charter is an important historical witness to China's exercise of sovereignty over Tibet.
Western missionaries brought Chinese culture to Europe, triggering the Chinese Movement in the 18th century. Europeans' admiration for Chinese culture, thought, and art was at its peak, but by the end of the 18th century, the Qing Dynasty had begun to decline and Europeans began to think negatively of it. Macartney, the British envoy who broke up with Emperor Qianlong, believed that the Qing Dynasty had entered a decline.
Jiadao is in decline
In the last years of Qianlong, the Qing Dynasty gradually showed its decline. In the middle of Qianlong's reign, he gradually became extravagant, went to the south of the Yangtze River six times, imitated the construction of gardens in the south of the Yangtze River, worked the people and lost money, and political corruption intensified. Qianlong favored He Shen in his later years, which led to He Shen's tyranny, corruption and bribery, and corruption of officials. At the same time, the high concentration of land and brutal feudal exploitation made life difficult for the peasants. In stark contrast to this was the arrogance and indulgence of the feudal rulers. The corruption of feudal rule foreshadowed the decline of the imperial dynasty. Corruption intensified class and national contradictions, and peasant uprisings were in full swing.
Lin Shuangwen, the leader of the Taitian Heaven and Earth Society, launched an uprising in 1787. In the first month of the 60th year of Qianlong (1795), the uprising of the Miao people in Hunan, Guizhou and Guizhou broke out, and it was pacified at the end of the first year of Jiaqing (1796). In the first month of the first year of Jiaqing (1796), the White Lotus Rebellion broke out, which lasted nine years and was the largest peasant war in the middle of the Qing Dynasty.
In the first month of the first year of Jiaqing (1796), Emperor Qianlong was located in the fifteenth son of Emperor Yan, that is, Emperor Jiaqing. Qianlong died in 1799, and the Jiaqing Emperor was able to govern in person. In the face of the crisis-ridden political situation, Emperor Jiaqing played the banner of "Xian and Restoration" to rectify internal affairs and punish corruption. Kill He Shen, depose him, and imprison his cronies. Widely open the way of speech, and praise the officials of the Qianlong Dynasty who were convicted for their words. Advocate frugality. Local officials are required to truthfully report the people's situation and guard against deception, whitewashing, and laziness. However, its rectification of internal affairs failed to fundamentally reverse the decline of the Qing Dynasty's political situation. In the Jiaqing Dynasty, the problem of corruption became more and more serious.
In the eighteenth year of Jiaqing (1813), the Tianlijiao uprising broke out in the north, and some believers rushed into the palace, and Emperor Jiaqing was forced to issue an edict against himself. In foreign affairs, Emperor Jiaqing strictly forbade opium, maintained a high degree of vigilance against British invaders, and rejected Britain's demands for the establishment of diplomatic relations, the opening of treaty ports, and the cession of coastal islands in Zhejiang. The concept of seclusion and seclusion leads to an attitude of rejection of foreign things. Emperor Jiaqing tried his best to maintain the stability of the Qing Dynasty in the midst of internal and external difficulties, but the wheel of history could not be stopped, and the decline of the Qing Dynasty in the last years of Jiaqing had been fully manifested, and gradually went to extinction.
After Emperor Daoguang came to power, his sharpness gradually lost, and his ruling style was conservative and rigid. He was bent on reforming the Cao Yun and salt administrations, replacing river transport with sea transport, solving the dilemma of Cao Yun and saving expenses, implementing the ticket salt system, so that the drawbacks of the two Huai and Huai salt administrations would disappear and the atmosphere would be clean and upright; lifting the ban on the exploitation of some mineral deposits and advocating returning the natural benefits of heaven and earth to the people; and rectifying the rule of officials and curbing the trend of extravagance. In particular, in the seventh year of Daoguang (1827), the Qing Dynasty put down the Zhanger rebellion in Xinjiang and maintained national unity and ethnic unity, and Xinjiang maintained peace for a long time after that. At the same time, the Qing Dynasty launched a struggle to strictly ban the drug opium. However, the confrontation between the great powers and the corrupt politics of the Qing Dynasty made the ban seem to be a false thing, and the spread of opium brought serious harm to China. At the same time, in officialdom, there is a common practice of forming cliques for personal gain, dumping each other, selling official positions, and taking bribes; in the military, equipment is outdated, training is not diligent, camp work is lax, and discipline is corrupt; and financially, the state treasury is running short and making ends meet. Class contradictions have intensified, popular uprisings have erupted, Western forces have gradually infiltrated, and China is facing the increasingly intensifying threat of foreign aggression.
External troubles and internal worries
Due to the corruption of officials, the rampant smuggling of customs, and the rampant opium trade, in 1839, Emperor Daoguang ordered Lin Zexu to go to Guangzhou to ban smoking. However, Britain took advantage of this to launch the Opium War, and the Qing Dynasty suffered a crushing defeat and was forced to sue for peace. In 1842, the humiliating Treaty of Nanking was signed, which began modern Chinese history. The Western powers forced the Qing Dynasty to open its ports, local officials and landlords annexed land, destroyed the traditional rural economy, and revolted in various places.
In the first month of the thirtieth year of Daoguang (1850), Emperor Daoguang died, and the fourth prince Yixu ascended the throne as Emperor Xianfeng. When Xianfeng ascended the throne, he was in trouble at home and abroad, and his rule was in crisis. In 1851, Hong Xiuquan rebelled in Jintian, Guangxi, established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, and proclaimed himself the King of Heaven. Two years later, Jiangning was captured and the capital was renamed. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom took the anti-Qing and anti-foreign resistance as its revolutionary purpose, established an official system, divided the princes, promulgated the calendar, formulated the economic system, minted coins, printed books, and launched two western expeditions. On May 8, 1853, Lin Fengxiang, Li Kaifang and others led more than 20,000 troops to the Northern Expedition. Subsequently, Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang and Li Hongzhang formed the Hunan Army and the Huai Army to resist the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.
In order to save the crisis, Emperor Xianfeng tried to reform. He appointed Zeng Guofan and relied on the Han landlord forces he trained to suppress the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and the Twist Army uprising. Promote Su Shun and support him in rectifying maladministration. After Su Shun took power, he assisted Emperor Xianfeng in "applying for the national law", severely punishing corruption, and purging the officialdom. He resolutely dealt with the "Wuwu Kechang case," which greatly improved the atmosphere of the Qing Dynasty's officialdom. Emperor Xianfeng also suggested minting large sums of money to solve financial difficulties, reduce the salaries of the Eight Banners, and reduce the financial burden of the state. At the same time, he deposed Mu Zhang'a, who was greedy for the throne and honored and hindered the virtuous and sick country, and executed the capitulation official Qi Ying.
In 1856, Britain and France provoked the Second Opium War in the name of the "Yarrow Incident" and the "Father Ma Incident". In the eighth year of Xianfeng (1858), the British and French forces broke through the Dagu Fort and approached Tianjin. Xianfeng ordered Guiliang and Hua Shana to negotiate in Tianjin, and signed the Sino-British Treaty of Tianjin, the Sino-American Treaty of Tianjin, the Sino-French Treaty of Tianjin, and the Sino-Russian Treaty of Tianjin. The Great Powers were dissatisfied with the rights and interests gained in the Treaty of Tientsin and deliberately fought again. Xianfeng ordered the Qing army to strengthen the defense of Dagu. In the ninth year of Xianfeng (1859), the British and French allied forces provoked at Dagukou and were defeated.
In the tenth year of Xianfeng (1860), Britain and France joined forces again and invaded on a large scale. The Anglo-French army captured Beitang, and Xianfeng ordered it to evacuate when the Qing army fought fiercely with Britain and France, and Dagu was lost again. The Anglo-French forces captured Tianjin and then advanced to Beijing. Xianfeng sent Prince Yi Zaiyuan and the military department Shangshu Muyin as ministers to Tongzhou to negotiate peace with Britain and France. In the name of peace talks, the British and French forces continued to attack Beijing, and after defeating the Qing army at the Bali Bridge in Tongzhou, they invaded Beijing, and the Old Summer Palace, Qingyi Garden and other places were tragically looted. Xianfeng fled to Rehe (now Chengde City) and ordered Prince Gong to stay in Beijing to negotiate peace. On behalf of the Qing court, Yixin signed the Sino-British Treaty of Beijing, the Sino-French Treaty of Beijing, and the Sino-Russian Treaty of Beijing with Britain, France, and Russia, and ratified the Sino-British, Sino-French Treaty of Tianjin.
Taking advantage of the fire, Russia invaded and occupied more than 1.5 million square kilometers of territory in northern China from the 50s to the 80s of the 19th century. A series of unequal treaties caused China to lose a large amount of territory, sovereignty and wealth, and the semi-colonial and semi-feudal society became more and more serious.
Improvement of ZTE
In 1861, Emperor Xianfeng died in Rehe, and was succeeded by his 6-year-old son Zaichun, who was Emperor Tongzhi. Before his death, Xianfeng appointed eight ministers to assist in the government, but the Empress Dowager of the Two Palaces and Prince Gong launched a coup d'état in Xinyou, implemented the curtain to listen to the government, and finally the Empress Dowager Cixi took real power. The Westernization Movement brought stability to Chinese society. In the first month of 1864, Zeng Guofan led the Qing army to conquer Zhongshan and besiege Tianjing. In July, the Hunan army broke through Tianjing. On January 5, 1868, the East Twist Army was destroyed in Wayaopu, northeast of Yangzhou, and on August 16, 1868, the West Twist Army was exterminated by Li Hongzhang's Huai Army in Chiping, Shandong Province. The last of the Twist Army, Yuan Dakui, with the name of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, was wiped out by Zuo Zongtang in 1869 in Baoan, northern Shaanxi. Between 1862 and 1878, Zuo Zongtang pacified the Shaanxi-Gansu Rebellion, recovered Xinjiang, and recovered Ili. In the process of exterminating the Taiping Army, Yi Xun, Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, Zuo Zongtang, Zhang Zhidong and others of the Westernization faction realized the advanced weapons of the West, so they launched a self-improvement movement (also known as the Westernization Movement) with the principle of "mastering the skills of the West to control the country" and using the Chinese style and the West.
In the early 60s of the 19th century, under the banner of "self-improvement", the Westernists introduced Western machinery and equipment and technology, and founded a number of military industries. Mainly: Anqingnei Ordnance Institute founded by Zeng Guofan, which was the first arsenal of the Westernization faction. Li Hongzhang founded the Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau in Shanghai, which produced guns, explosives, and ships. Zuo Zongtang founded the Fuzhou Shipping Administration Bureau in Mawei, Fuzhou, to produce steamships and supply the needs of the navy and various provinces to patrol and prevent smuggling. The Westernists established more than 20 military factories, the largest of which was the Hubei Gun Factory founded by Zhang Zhidong in Hanyang in 1890. The ownership and production management rights of these military industries are owned by the feudal government and have a strong feudal character, but the wage labor system is generally adopted and has a capitalist character.
After the 70s, under the banner of "seeking wealth", the Westernists continued to build military industries and also established some civilian-related industries. It mainly adopts the form of "official supervision and business management", that is, investment and shareholding, and the government sends people to operate and manage. In addition, there are "government-run" and "government-business-run" industries. Among the more important ones are the steamship China Merchants Bureau organized by Li Hongzhang, the Shanghai Machine Weaving Layout, the Kaiping Mining Bureau, and the Hanyang Iron Works established by Zhang Zhidong. In the 80s, Kaiping Mining Bureau also built a railway to transport coal, which pioneered China's railway transportation industry. The capital of civilian industry mainly comes from social input, the factory adopts the wage labor system, and the purpose of production is to pursue profits, so its nature is capitalist; because the feudal bureaucracy manages the enterprises, the corrupt style of officialdom is also brought into the enterprises, so the enterprises have a certain feudal character.
At that time, the Prime Minister's National Affairs Yamen and the later Minister of Beiyang International Trade led the layout and promotion of foreign relations and the self-improvement movement, actively introduced Western science and technology, established modern financial and postal systems, laid railways, and built telecommunications networks. In the mid-70s of the 19th century, the Westernists set out to build a navy. By 1885, the three navies of Beiyang, Nanyang and Fujian began to take shape. After that, the Westernists turned their focus to the Beiyang Navy. In 1888, the Beiyang Navy was formally established as the Beiyang Fleet, with more than 20 warships, most of which were purchased from abroad. In addition, the Westernists also built the ports of Lushun and Weihaiwei as bases for the Beiyang Fleet. In order to meet the needs of the Westernization industry, they founded a series of new-style schools, such as the Jingshi Tongwen Museum, the Fuzhou Shipbuilding School, and the Tianjin Telegraph School, and trained a number of translators, military and technical personnel. At the same time, they also sent nearly 200 students to study abroad in batches to learn Western military and scientific and technological knowledge.
The Westernization Movement restored and improved the national strength of the Qing Dynasty, and during the Tongzhi period when the Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong were jointly in power, the Qing Dynasty had a relatively stable situation and was known as "Tongzhi Zhongxing". During this period, the Qing Dynasty, with the assistance of the West, successfully quelled civil strife and recovered Xinjiang, and its international status and image were significantly enhanced. By the 80s of the 19th century, the equipment of the Qing army had been significantly improved compared with before the Westernization Movement.
The empire is in shambles
In the thirteenth year of Tongzhi (1874), Emperor Tongzhi died in the East Warm Pavilion of the Yangxin Palace, only 19 years old. The son of Prince Alcohol, the four-year-old Zaiyan was selected by Cixi to ascend the throne, and the following year he was renamed "Guangxu". The queen mother of the two palaces once again lowered the curtain to listen to the government. In the seventh year of Guangxu (1881), the Empress Dowager Ci'an died mysteriously. Cixi took sole power. After the outbreak of the Sino-French War, Cixi dismissed Prince Gong on the grounds that the incident had failed, and at the same time deposed the Minister of the Fifth Military Aircraft, and appointed his cronies to the Military Aircraft Department and the Cabinet. Since then, the Qing court has become the dictatorship of Cixi.
After Tongzhi, the world's major capitalist countries entered the stage of imperialism one after another. The great powers have extended their claws of aggression to China's borders, plunging China's borders into a serious crisis. The United States has long had the intention of invading and occupying Taiwan. In the third year of Xianfeng (1853), the U.S. Navy fleet flew to Taiwan, and the Gaoshan people fought back and expelled the U.S. invading army. In the thirteenth year of Tongzhi (1874), Japan sent Lieutenant General Saigo to invade Taiwan. The Qing court sent Shen Baozhen, the minister of shipping, to Taiwan to deploy defenses, and signed the "Taiwan Affairs Article" with Japan, in exchange for the withdrawal of the Japanese army with a compensation of 500,000 taels of silver. During the Tongzhi years, Britain continuously sent personnel into China's Yunnan and Tibet to investigate. In the second year of Guangxu (1876), under British pressure, the Qing court sent Li Hongzhang and the British representative Wei Tuma to sign the "Yantai Treaty" and the "Special Article on Exploring the Road to Tibet" in Yantai, Shandong.
In the 16th year of Guangxu (1890), the Qing court negotiated with the British to demarcate the border between China and Zhemengxiong (Sikkim). In the 19th year of Guangxu (1893), the Qing court and the British signed the "Tibetan and Indian Renewal Treaty", and since then, the British power has penetrated deep into Tibet. In the northwest, in the fourth year of Tongzhi (1865), Aguba, the Kokand Khanate of Central Asia, took advantage of the turmoil in Xinjiang and led an army to invade Kashgar. Faced with the dual crises in the northwest and southeast, the Qing court launched a "dispute between coastal defense and fortress defense". Li Hongzhang emphasized coastal defense and advocated strengthening coastal defense, but advocated abandoning Xinjiang on the grounds that "it is difficult to balance coastal defense and westward expedition." Zuo Zongtang, the governor of Shaanxi and Gansu, strongly advocated the recovery of Xinjiang, and the Qing court adopted his suggestion and appointed Zuo Zongtang as the minister of the Qin Mission in the first year of Guangxu (1875) to supervise the military affairs of Xinjiang. The following year, the Qing army entered Xinjiang and recovered most of the territory in northern Xinjiang. In January of the fourth year of Guangxu (1878), the Qing army finally recovered Hotan. At this point, only the Ili region remained in the hands of the Russian invaders.
Zuo Zongtang recovered Xinjiang
In 1883, the Sino-French War broke out between the Qing Dynasty and France over the sovereignty of Vietnam (Annam). From January to April 1884, the French invaded the coasts of Fujian and Taiwan with eight heavily armed warships, cruising in the ports of Fuzhou, Xiamen and Keelung. In 1885, under the grim situation, Feng Zicai, the governor of Guangxi, was ordered to rush to Zhennanguan as an assistant to Guangxi's military affairs, and finally won the victory, forcing the French army to flee in a hurry. Subsequently, Feng Zicai took advantage of the victory to pursue, recaptured Langshan and other places, and annihilated more than 1,000 French troops. The news of the defeat reached France, causing strife within the bourgeois ruling circles and the collapse of the Jouferi cabinet, which had provoked a war of aggression against China. The Qing government decided to "accept it when it sees good", and the Sino-French Treaty of Vietnam (Sino-French New Treaty) was formally signed in Tianjin, in which China recognized France's right to protect Vietnam, opened Mengzi and Longzhou to trade with France, withdrew French troops from Keelung and Penghu, and lifted the blockade of China's seas. With the heroic resistance of the Chinese military and civilians, the French attempt to occupy Taiwan ended in failure.
The Qing Dynasty lost Vietnam as a vassal state, Vietnam became a French colony, and Taiwan was declared a province. In the 11th year of Guangxu (1885), the Qing court appointed Liu Mingchuan as the first governor of Taiwan Province. During his tenure in Taiwan, Liu Mingchuan built railways, opened coal mines, established telecommunications, reformed postal services, developed shipping, promoted Taiwan's trade, developed education, promoted the development of Taiwan's modern industry and commerce, and consolidated Taiwan's national defense day by day. After the war, the Qing Dynasty established a naval yamen. In 1885, the British invaded Burma, and the Qing Dynasty's minister to Britain, Zeng Jize, protested to no avail, and was forced to sign the Sino-British Treaty of Burma the following year, recognizing Burma as British.
In 1872, Japan forced the Qing Dynasty vassal state of Ryukyu to be part of Japan, but the Qing Dynasty refused to recognize it, and Sino-Japanese relations deteriorated. On July 25, 1894, Japanese ships attacked Chinese ships, and the Sino-Japanese War broke out. On August 1, 1894, China and Japan declared war, and the Sino-Japanese War broke out. The First Sino-Japanese War lasted nine months and was divided into two battlefields: land and naval battles, in which the Japanese captured Pyongyang in Korea, defeated the Beiyang Naval Division in the Battle of the Yellow Sea, and then captured Lushun and Weihai in China. On January 20, 1895, the Japanese army landed on Rongcheng Longsu Island and occupied Rongcheng. Immediately, it was divided into two roads, north and south, and plagiarized the Weihai Nangang Fort. On the 30th, the Nanbang Fort fell. On February 1, the Japanese army occupied the Weihai Acropolis. After that, the Japanese army cooperated by land and water to attack Liugong Island and the Beiyang Fleet in the port. Admiral Ding Ruchang of the Beiyang Fleet and others committed suicide and martyrdom one after another. On the 17th, the Weihaiwei Naval Base fell, and the Beiyang Fleet was destroyed. In the end, it ended in the defeat of the Qing army.
In 1895, the Qing government signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki with Japan, ceding Taiwan and the Penghu Islands and their affiliated islands, and losing the vassal state of Korea. The Beiyang Fleet established by Li Hongzhang, a Westernist faction, was completely wiped out, and the self-improvement movement was finally defeated.
Restoration Atlas
The signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki caused China to suffer again from land cession, reparations, and loss of sovereignty. The defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War contributed to the semi-colonization of Chinese society. At a time when the nation is in crisis, people of insight seek new ways to save the country and its people. Emperor Guangxu learned from the pain and vigorously promoted the reform and reform.
In 1898, Emperor Guangxu and reformist leaders such as Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei launched a political reform movement. The edict of "Ming Dingguo Is" was promulgated and the law was changed. In terms of politics, the New Deal was opened up to allow newspapers to "point out the pros and cons of Chen," and "Chinese and foreign current affairs were allowed to be based on the facts and made clear without taboos." He also issued an edict that all members of the procuratorate and the ministry could submit their opinions in writing, which would be passed on through the "court officials" of the yamen, and ordinary people could submit them to the Metropolitan Procuratorate; the organization should be streamlined, and the six yamen, including the Zhan Shifu and the General Administration Department, should be abolished, and the provinces should also be streamlined; new people should be appointed, and Yang Rui, Liu Guangdi, and Tan Sitong of the Restorationists were all appointed by Guangxu to "walk in the capital of the military aircraft yamen Zhangjing" and participate in the new policy; imitating Kangxi, During the Qianlong period, the old system was opened in the Forbidden City, and the "Maoqin Palace" was actually a place for the emperor and the reformers to discuss the reform of the system (unsuccessful).
In the military aspect, the military has switched to Western military training; dismissed the old, weak, and disabled soldiers, reduced the salaries and expenditures of the army, carried out regimental training, reduced the number of green battalions, and organized militias; issued regulations for special rewards for the construction of guns and artillery; prepared for the establishment of an armed academy; and stopped the examination of bows and arrows and swords in the martial arts department, and changed the test of guns and cannons. In the economic aspect, the State Administration of Agriculture and Industry and Commerce has been established, wasteland has been reclaimed, privately run enterprises have been promoted, and invention and creation have been encouraged; the General Administration of Railways and Mines has been set up to build roads and mines; post offices have been set up throughout the country to provide postal services; financial reforms have been carried out, and state budgets have been drawn up. In terms of culture and education: reform the imperial examination system, set up new schools, translation bureaus, newspapers, etc. However, the Wuxu Reform was opposed by the Empress Dowager Cixi, who wanted to take advantage of the Empress Dowager Cixi and Emperor Guangxu to launch a coup d'état and depose Emperor Guangxu when they went to Tianjin for a military parade. After the imperial party learned about it, they wanted to win over Yuan Shikai, the leader of the new army, to rescue Emperor Guangxu, but was betrayed by Yuan Shikai.
On the sixth day of the first month of August, the Empress Dowager Cixi imprisoned Emperor Guangxu in Yingtai, Zhongnanhai, and killed the "six gentlemen" Tan Sitong, Lin Xu, Yang Rui, Yang Shenxiu, Liu Guangdi, and Kang Guangren, wanted Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, and dismissed the officials of the Restoration. The reform lasted only 103 days, so it was called the "100-day Restoration".
In 1896, the Qing court signed the Sino-Russian Secret Treaty for the alliance with Russia. After China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War, the great powers set off a frenzy to carve up China. At this time, the Boxer Rebellion broke out in the Jilu region of North China with the slogan of "helping the Qing Dynasty and destroying the foreigners". The Empress Dowager Cixi wanted to take advantage of this xenophobia, secretly acquiescing to the Boxers and declaring war on the Eleven Kingdoms. In order to protect China and South China, the governors of the southeastern provinces did not obey the Qing court's edict to declare war on foreign countries, and launched the southeast to protect themselves, and the Boxer Rebellion triggered the retaliation of the Western powers.
In 1900, the Eight-Nation Coalition invaded and occupied Beijing. After the Qing court declared war on the Eight-Nation Alliance in late June, the Qing army suffered repeated defeats. Beijing was occupied by the coalition forces, looted, killed, and plundered. Empress Dowager Cixi led Emperor Guangxu to flee to Xi'an, believing that the disaster was caused by the Boxers, so she ordered the extermination of the Boxers. In the end, the Boxer Rebellion failed under the joint suppression of the Qing army and the Eight-Nation Alliance. In 1901, the Qing Dynasty signed the Treaty of Xinchou with eleven countries. In 1904, the Russo-Japanese War broke out into a conflict of interests between Japan and Russia in the northeast, further deepening China's semi-colonization.
Revolutionary Tide
After the invasion of the Eight-Nation Alliance, the national strength of the Qing Dynasty declined seriously, and the scholars sought ways to save the country, which were mainly divided into two major reform lines: the constitutionalist and the revolutionary. In 1901, Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and others advocated constitutionalism, and Liang Qichao published the "Constitutional Proposal", advocating that Emperor Guangxu should become a constitutional monarch. In order to save the decline of the Qing Dynasty, the Empress Dowager Cixi imitated the reforms of Europe and Japan and implemented the new policy at the end of the Qing Dynasty. The New Deal included a series of measures such as the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, the establishment of a new army, the abolition of the imperial examinations, and the rectification of finances. Disillusioned with the Qing reforms, the revolutionaries advocated the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of a republic.
Sun Wen founded the Xingzhong Society in Honolulu, Hawaii, in 1894, Huang Xing founded the Huaxing Society in Changsha, and in the same year, Cai Yuanpei founded the Guangfu Society in Shanghai. In 1905, Sun Wen united the Xingzhonghui, Huaxinghui, and Guangfuhui in Japan to establish the China Alliance, and put forward the program of "expelling the Tatars, restoring China, founding the Republic of China, and equalizing land rights". The revolutionaries, together with the Triads, Hongmen and other anti-Qing forces, launched ten uprisings in South China, and infiltrated the Qing New Army in Central and South China.
Disputes arose between the constitutionalists and revolutionaries over the method of reform, with the constitutionalists having the upper hand in the early days and the Qing court promising to implement the constitution. In 1907, the Qing court prepared for the establishment of the Zizheng Yuan, prepared for the constitution, and set up advisory bureaus in various provinces. In July 1908, the Statutes of the Provincial Consultative Bureaus and the Statutes for the Election of Members of the Legislature were promulgated, requiring each province to establish an Advisory Council within one year. In the same year, the Outline of the King James Constitution was promulgated, establishing a constitutional monarchy and establishing a representative parliament. At the request of the constitutionalists, the Qing court announced that it was scheduled to convene a parliament in 1913. In November 1908, Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi passed away one after another, and Pu Yi succeeded to the throne, that is, Emperor Xuantong, and his father Zaifeng served as the regent of the prison state.
In May 1911, the Qing court formed a "responsible cabinet" led by Prince Qing Yixuan, which was the first constitutional monarchy in Chinese history. However, the cabinet consisted mostly of the imperial family, and was called the "Imperial Cabinet", which caused discontent among the constitutionalists and turned to cooperate with the revolutionaries.
In May of the same year, the Baolu Movement broke out in Sichuan and other places, and the Qing court urgently sent new troops into Sichuan to suppress it. In October, the revolutionaries launched the Wuchang Uprising in Hubei, and the southern provinces subsequently declared independence. The Qing court appointed Yuan Shikai, commander of the Beiyang New Army, as the prime minister of the cabinet, established a cabinet and commanded the Qing army. On the one hand, Yuan Shikai put pressure on the revolutionary army in the Yangxia War, but on the other hand, he secretly negotiated with the revolutionaries, forming a trend of peace between the north and the south.
On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China was proclaimed in Nanjing, and Sun Yat-sen was inaugurated as the provisional president of the Republic of China in Nanjing. On February 12, Yuan Shikai forced Emperor Puyi of Xuantong to issue an edict of abdication, handing over power to Yuan Shikai's government, and the Qing Dynasty fell.
Dynasty follow-up
After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, relying on the "Preferential Conditions of the Qing Family", the members of the royal family were able to stay in the Forbidden City, the court status, treatment, and era name remained the same as before, the eunuchs, guards, and palace maids were still retained, and the Internal Affairs Office, the Zongren Mansion, the Shen Criminal Division and other institutions were still in operation. They still enjoyed the privileges of the emperor, and formed a confrontation with the government of the Republic of China, and were known as the "small court of the Qing Dynasty".
In June 1917, Zhang Xun, a Qing Dynasty general entrenched in Xuzhou, took advantage of the conflict between Li Yuanhong and Duan Qirui to lead 5,000 "pigtail soldiers" into Beijing. He hurriedly summoned the remnants of the Qing Dynasty from all over the country to Beijing to jointly support the restoration of the abdicated last emperor Puyi, known as the "Ding Si Restoration", however, this restoration only lasted 12 days. On November 5, 1924, Pu Yi was driven out of the Forbidden City by Feng Yuxiang, but there are still some old ministers of the Qing Dynasty who respect him as emperor, and continue to maintain a miniature small court in Shichahai in Beiping, Zhangyuan in Tianjin, Jingyuan and other places, known as the "small court of the Later Xun Qing Dynasty".