Additive manufacturing (AM) provides unprecedented design freedom and manufacturing flexibility for machining complex parts. Despite the numerous advantages of additive manufacturing over traditional manufacturing methods, there are still some problems and bottlenecks that hinder the large-scale industrial application of additive manufacturing technology. The emerging field-assisted additive manufacturing (FAAM) is a name that combines different auxiliary energy fields (e.g., ultrasonic, magnetic, etc.) to overcome the limitations of additive manufacturing through the inherent advantages of auxiliary fields. This work provides an up-to-date, specialized review of FAAM in metallic materials, assisted by mainstream auxiliary magnetic, acoustic, mechanical, and thermal fields, as well as a number of emerging fields. The working principle and interaction mechanism between the field and the deposited metal material are clarified. FAAM process simulation and modeling are also reviewed. The auxiliary field can affect the convection and dynamics of the melt pool, change the temperature distribution and thermal history of the material during solidification, and cause stress or plastic deformation of the deposited material. Therefore, the effects of auxiliary fields on melt pool dynamics, solidification kinetics, densification behavior, microstructure and texture, mechanical properties and fatigue properties are reviewed and discussed in detail. The research gaps and further development trends of FAAM are prospected.
bright spot
• Clarifies advances in field-assisted additive manufacturing (FAAM).
• Reveal the interaction mechanism between the field and the deposited metallic material.
• The correlation between auxiliary fields, microstructure, and mechanical properties is summarized.
• Prospects for field-assisted additive manufacturing research opportunities are envisaged.
Picture of the paper
Fig. 1. The outline of typical metal additive manufacturing technologies used in field-assisted additive manufacturing (FAAM) .
Fig. 2. An overview of the multi-type of field-assisted additive manufacturing (FAAM) technologies. Image sources from Refs.
Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of the mechanism of the magnetic field during additive manufacturing: (a) Marangoni flow in the melt pool without magnetic field; (b) induced current and Lorentz force restrains the melt flow with applied magnetic field; (c) and (d) induced thermoelectric magnetic convection (TEMC) at the melt pool scale in XZ and YZ plane, respectively [44]; and the induced thermoelectricmagnetic force (TEMF) in different positions (e) bottom, (f) side and (g) tail of the melt pool at the dendritic scale.
Fig. 4. Schematics of additive manufacturing with the auxiliary magnetic field (MF). LPBF with (a) horizontal static MF, (b) vertical static MF, and (c) vertical static and high-frequency MF [47]; LDED with (d) horizontal static MF, (e) vertical and (f) horizontal MF ; WAAM with (g) horizontal static MF, (h) one direction and (i) two perpendicular directions electric-induced MF.
Fig. 5. Evolutions of porosity and densification of AM fabricated parts with the auxiliary magnetic field (MF). (a) Pore morphology in LPBF AlSi10Mg alloys without and with MF, (b) schematic diagram illustrating the mechanism of porosity decrease after applying MF; (c) Densification behaviour in LPBF AlSi10Mg alloys for a wide volume energy density range, (d) Porosity decreased from 0.3% to 0.2% with an applied vertical MF in LDED Inconel 718 alloys, (e) MF(static and alternating) increased the density of LPBF SS316 alloys [47], and (f) In-situ synchrotron radiation study illustrating porosity changes in LPBF-processed 4140 steel.
Fig. 6. Effect of magnetic field on the cracks in the LDED fabricated Mar-M-247 alloys. (a) and (c) without magnetic fields, and (b) and (d) with magnetic fields.
Fig. 7. Effect of auxiliary magnetic field (MF) on the powder catchment efficiency and surface morphology. (a) Powder catchment efficiency increased by an applied MF, (b) shape of LDED deposited tracks without and with an MF, (c) powder stream changed by an applied MF, and (d) WAAM fabricated parts and (e) the corresponding contour of samples.
Fig. 8. Effect of auxiliary magnetic field (MF) on the grain and texture in AM. (a) and (b) The inverse pole figures of LPBF fabricated AlSi10Mg alloys without and with a static MF respectively, (c) schematic showing the influence of a static MF on the grain morphology and texture during AM, (d) MF refined the grains in LDED-fabricated Ti6Al4V alloys, (e) IPF images show the effect of MF on the grain size of LDED fabricated Inconel 718 alloy, and (f) and (g) inverse pole figures and corresponding pole figures of the WAAM-fabricated Inconel 718 alloys without and with alternating MF respectively.
Fig. 9. Effect of auxiliary magnetic field (MF) on microstructural morphology evolutions in AM. (a) Dendrite morphology evolution of LDED fabricated Inconel 718, (b) dendrites evolutions and corresponding (c) schematics of Inconel 625 deposited by WAAM with auxiliary MF, (d) columnar to (e) equiaxed dendrite transition (along with element mapping) in LPBF AlSi10Mg alloys, (f) dendrite spacing and Laves phase volume decreasing with the applied MF in WAAM Inconel 718, and (g) phase transition in LDED Ti6Al4V alloys.
Fig. 10. Effect of auxiliary magnetic field (MF) on mechanical properties of AM-processed different materials. (a) LPBF-processed AlSi10Mg alloys without MF and with a 0.12 T static MF , (b) the LPBF-processed AlSi10Mg alloys assisted by MF compared with the literature, (c) the comparison of the LPBF-processed SS316 alloys without and with (static and alternating) MFs, (d) the hardness of WAAM-processed Inconel 625 with and without a static MF, (e) WAAM-processed Inconel 718 with and without MF, and (f) LDED-processed Ti6Al4V alloys with a static MF, showing better ductility but a weaker strength.
Fig. 11. Additive manufacturing with the auxiliary acoustic field. (a) Substrate ultrasonic vibration (USV)-assisted WAAM, (b) substrate USV-assisted LDED, (c) moving USV-assisted WAAM , and (d) moving USV-assisted LDED.
Fig. 12. Effects of auxiliary acoustic field on the melt pool dynamics. (a) Schematic of USV-assisted AM, (b) simulation results of temperature field and flow field in the melt pool, (c) snapshots of the melt pool and (d) the corresponding flow field simulation.
Fig. 13. Densification behaviour of the AM fabricated parts with auxiliary ultrasonic vibration (USV). (a) Comparisons on porosity of LDED-built 17-4 PH steel without and with USV, (b) comparisons on porosity of LDED-built AISI 630 steel without and with USV, (c) comparisons on porosity of LDED-built 316 L without and with USV, and (d) variations of pore size of LDED-built Ti–TiB composite without and with USV.
Fig. 14. Effects of auxiliary ultrasonic vibration (USV) on the microstructure of the LDED-built (a) Inconel 718, (b) Ti6Al4V [72], (c) Inconel 625, (d) 316 L and (e) Ti/TiB composite.
Fig. 15. Effects of auxiliary ultrasonic vibration (USV) on the mechanical properties: (a) the hardness of LDED-built 17-4 PH steel without and with USV, (b) the tensile properties of LDED-built Ti6Al4V alloy without and with USV, (c) the effect of USV on the microhardness of the LDED-built Inconel 718 alloy, the tensile properties of the (d) LDED-built Inconel 718 alloy, (e) LDED-built ER321 steel and (f) WAAM-built Inconel 625 alloy without and with USV (UAM represent the USV-assisted WAAM).
Fig. 16. Additive manufacturing with the auxiliary thermal field. (a) substrate heating, (b) hot-wire process, (c) hybrid AM process, (d) in-situ induction heating, and (e) in-situ laser diodes heating.
Fig. 17. Densification behaviour of the AM fabricated parts with the auxiliary thermal field. (a) Relative density and optical images of the LDED-built tungsten samples under different pre-heating temperatures, (b) 3D distribution of defects in the WAAM-built 2024 Al samples either with or without hot-wire process, and optical images of (c) the LDED-built IN738LC and (d) the LPBF-built Hastelloy X alloys under different pre-heating temperatures, and (e) the LDED-built IN718 and (f) the WAAM-built 304 L stainless steel with various auxiliary heat sources .
Fig. 18. Residual stress of the AM fabricated parts with the auxiliary thermal field. (a)–(f) Residual stress distribution simulation in an LDED-built 12CrNi2 low alloy steel either with and without auxiliary pre-heating. (g)–(h) Residual stress distribution simulations of a WAAM-built ER70S-6 under different in-situ induction heating processes.
Fig. 19. Microstructure evolutions of the AM fabricated parts with auxiliary thermal field. (a)–(c) Columnar-to-equiaxed transition (CET) occurred in LDED-built IN738LC alloy, WAAM-built Ti-6.5Al-3.5Mo-1.5Zr-0.3Si alloy, LDED-built Ti6Al4V alloy, respectively, (d) in-situ decomposition of martensite α′ in an LDED-built Ti6Al4V alloy.
Fig. 20. Additive manufacturing with auxiliary mechanical deformation. (a) Interlayer rolling assisted WAAM, (b) In-situ rolling assisted WAAM, (c) Interlayer machine hammer peening (MHP) assisted WAAM, (d) In-situ MHP assisted WAAM, (e) laser shock peening (LSP) assisted LDED, and (f) LSP assisted LPBF.
Fig. 21. Effect of auxiliary mechanical deformation on the porosity of the AM-processed metallic materials. (a) OM images of a WAAM-processed 2319 and 5087 Al alloys with and without interlayer rolling, (b) 3D distribution of micropores for a WAAM 2319 and 5087 Al alloys with/without interlayer rolling, (c) micropores for a WAAM 5087 Al alloy with/without in-situ rolling, (d) micropores for a WAAM 2319 Al alloy with and without MHP, (e) evaluation of porosity for the WAAM 316 L stainless steel with MHP , (f) OM image of the LPBF 316 L with and without LSP.
Fig. 22. Effects of auxiliary mechanical deformation on residual stress distributions. (a) Interlayer rolling assisted WAAM Ti6Al4V , (b) in-situ rolling assisted WAAM Inconel 718, (c) interlayer MHP assisted WAAM Ti6Al4V, and (d) LSP assisted LPBF 316 L.
Fig. 23. Microstructure evolutions of AM fabricated alloys with various auxiliary mechanical deformations. (a) WAAM 18Ni250 steel with/without interlayer rolling, (b) WAAM 2319 Al alloy with/without interlayer rolling [152], (c) WAAM Ti6Al4V with/without interlayer rolling [153], (d) WAAM 2319 Al with and without in-situ LSP, (e) LDED Ti6Al4V with/without in-situ rolling, (f) LDED Inconel 718 with/without in-situ rolling], and (g) WAAM C45 steel with/without in-situ rolling.
Fig. 24. Mechanical properties of the Ti6Al4V deposited by various AM technologies with and without auxiliary mechanical deformation.
Fig. 25. Fatigue property of various AM fabricated alloys with auxiliary mechanical deformation. (a) S–N fatigue curves of 5087 Al alloy deposited by in-situ rolling assisted WAAM, (b) S–N fatigue curves of Ti6Al4V alloy deposited by interlayer rolling assisted WAAM, (c) fatigue crack growth (FCG) rates of WAAM Ti6Al4V with and without in-situ rolling, (d) S–N fatigue curves of 316 L deposited by LSP assisted LPBF.
Fig. 26. Electric field assisted additive manufacturing (E-FAAM). (a)–(c) Experimental apparatus of electric and magnetic fields assisted AM [187]; (d)–(f) microstructures of the LDED-built part without electric field, with a static electric field and with rotating electric field, respectively.
Fig. 27. Plasma field assisted additive manufacturing (P-FAAM) of metallic materials. (a) Schematic of pulsed laser-assisted AM [189], EBSD (b) IPF maps and (c) {001} PF maps of the reconstructed β grains of the pulsed laser assisted LDED-built Ti6Al4V alloy.
Fig. 28. Multi-fields coupling assisted additive manufacturing of metallic materials. (a) Schematic of synchronous electromagnetic induction assisted LDED, (b) tensile curves of Ti6Al4V/10 wt% TiCp composite with and without synchronous electromagnetic induction; (c) and (d) schematic of synchronous oscillating laser coupled with wire-arc additive manufacturing, and melt flow with (e) ordinary laser and (f) oscillating laser.
Fig. 29. Influence of magnetic field (MF) on the temperature, temperature gradient, electric currents, thermo-electric-magnetic force, velocity, and Lorentz force. Simulated results of AlSi10Mg alloys fabricated by LPBF under various MF intensities at t = 1503 s, (a) without magnetic field, with a magnetic field intensity of (b) 0.1 T and (c) 0.2 T, (d) Maximum flow velocity magnitude and (e) maximum Lorentz force of the melt pool under various intensities of MF.
Fig. 30. Fluid flow hydrodynamic mechanism, temperature field, and microstructure with and without magnetic field (MF) for Al10Si alloy. The hydrodynamic mechanism for Al10Si alloy processed by LPBF (a) without MF, (b) with -Y direction MF, and (c) with +Z direction MF, Thermal field for (d) without MF, (e) with -Y direction MF, and (f) with +Z direction MF, Cross-section of microstructure perpendicular to scan direction for (g) without MF, (h) with -Y direction MF, and (i) with +Z direction MF. Microstructure depends on the temperature gradient and pool shape and size, which can be adjusted by applying different intensities or directions of MF.
Fig. 31. Simulation results using FLOW-3D for WAAM with and without ultrasonic vibration of 1045 steel. Cross-sections for the WAAM parts (a) without and (b) with ultrasonic vibration, respectively, (c) the longitudinal section of the melt pool along the symmetry surface (XZ plane), (d) the schematic cross-section of the melt pool with acoustic streaming and cavitation.
Fig. 32. Melt pool and streamlines in the LDED process with and without ultrasound for Inconel 718 [81]. For LDED without ultrasound condition: (a) calculated results of the dynamic melt pool, (b) experimental images display the instantaneous melt pool morphology, streamlines at (c) t0 and (d) t0 + 25 μs. For ultrasound assisted LDED (UADED) condition: (e)calculated results of the dynamic melt pool, (f) experimental images display the instantaneous melt pool morphology, streamlines at (g) t0 and (h) t0 + 25 μs.
Fig. 33. Influence of thermal field-assisted AM process on power density, temperature, cooling rate, and stress for Ti6Al4V alloy. Illustration of the Gaussian distributed heat sources for LPBF modelling for (a) a single laser beam, an auxiliary heat source of (b) parallel laser heating, (c) pre-heating laser, and (d) post-heating laser, (e) illustration of three different modes of a second laser beam of parallel, post-heating, and preheating modes, comparing the calculated results for (f) peak temperature, (g) cooling rate, and (h) stress for three heating modes under various conditions, post-heating is found as the most effective way to reduce stress.
Fig. 34. Simulation results of longitudinal residual stress and temperature for LPBF process under various phase transition points (Ms) and with/without pre-heating using FV520B steel as substrate and Fe–Cr–Ni–Mo–B–Si powder. Longitudinal residual stress distribution and temperature of the mid-point of the fifth pass in the first layer for (a) without preheating, Ms = 200◦C (b) preheated at 200 ◦C, Ms = 200◦C, (c) without preheating, Ms = 400◦C, and (d) preheated at 200 ◦C, Ms =400◦C.
Fig. 35. Results of thermo-mechanical simulation, solidification simulation, and dynamic recrystallization simulation for carbon steel. Thermo-mechanical coupling simulation of the hybrid deposition and micro-rolling (HDMR) process of (a) temperature (in K) and (b) true strain distribution, Microstructure evolution during the HDMR process, solidification simulation at different Cellular Automata steps (CAs) of (c) 3000 CAs, (d) 7000 CAs, (e) 10000 CAs, recrystallization simulation at (f) 1000 CAs, (g) 3500 CAs, (h) 6500 CAs, simulation results of dynamic recrystallization at 6500 CAs under rolling reduction (ΔH) of (i) 0.5 mm and (j) 1.5 mm, (k) schematic of statistic for dynamic recrystallization grains.
Fig. 36. Influence of roller profile radius, initial residual stress, and roller design on residual stress. (a) roll profile radius, (b) simulated residual stress with profile radius of 1.5, 3, and 6 mm, compare the final residual stress distribution with and without initial residual stress (int. RS) field for (c) Ti6Al4V, (d) S355JR steel, and (e) AA2319 alloy, εp represents the equivalent plastic strain, (f) design of flat, profiled, and slotted rollers with roller radius of 50 mm, (g) longitudinal plastic strain (PS) and residual stress (RS) distributions obtained from the symmetry plane of WAAM wall, with the substrate steel grade S355JR-AR and Lincoln Electric SupraMIG G3Si1/ER70S-6 wire.
Fig. 37. A summary of underlying mechanisms for material-field interactions in FAAM. Image source from Refs.
Fig. 38. A summary of the contribution of auxiliary fields to additive manufacturing in FAAM.
Fig. 39. The perspectives in future R&D of FAAM. Image source from Refs.
Paper Information:
Review on field assisted metal additive manufacturing
Hatpas://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachatul.2023.104032
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