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Abstract:The purpose of the Human Genome Project is to uncover the genetic roots of human diseases and explore more efficient treatments. The focus of research stems from the personal interests of the three core project sponsors, and the hypothesis that schizophrenia is a hereditary disorder based on family, adoption, and twin studies. Researchers have used a variety of methods to conduct in-depth exploration, including linkage analysis, candidate gene analysis, genome-wide association studies (GWAS), copy number variation, exome sequencing, etc., but have not succeeded in identifying specific disease-causing genes. However, studies have identified nearly 300 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with changes in the risk of developing schizophrenia, as well as some rare variants, which may increase the risk of the disease in a small number of individuals. These risk genes play a role in the clinical presentation of most diseases, but they are not sufficient to cause disease when they are present alone.
As time went on, more and more researchers began to question whether schizophrenia was strictly a genetic disorder. Since 1996, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) has shifted its research focus from clinical to basic research based on the Human Genome Project. As a result, the institution's three decades of investment in genetics have yielded little to no clinically practical outcome for the affected individuals. It's time to revisit the NIH's schizophrenia research program.
▷Torrey, E. Fuller. "Did the human genome project affect research on Schizophrenia?." Psychiatry Research 333 (2024): 115691.
On June 26, 2000, a press conference was held at the Clinton White House, which was considered a major event in the scientific community that year. The President heralded the completion of the $3 billion Human Genome Project, the first comprehensive survey of the human genome. Francis Collins once described it as "the most important and significant project in human history to date" (Kolata, 1993).
He further noted at the press conference that this achievement amounted to "the first glimpse of man into his own instructions, which previously only God knew" (Venter, 2007, p. 314). Craig Venter regarded it as "an epochal moment in the 100,000-year history of mankind" (Venter, p. 315). President Clinton also compared this achievement to Galileo's discoveries (Venter, p. 313) and promised that it would "revolutionize the way most, if not all, human diseases are diagnosed, prevented, and treated" (Collins, 2010).
Schizophrenia is one of the major diseases of special concern for the Human Genome Project. According to the 2020 census, about 4 million U.S. adults are suffering from the disease (Mojtabai 2021). Data from 2019 estimated that 3.9 million people were affected at the time, and the annual economic burden of the disease in the United States was $97.3 billion in direct costs and $251.9 billion in indirect costs, making it one of the most expensive diseases (Kadakia et al., 2022).
01 Introduction: Schizophrenia as a stimulus
At the White House news conference, the media focus was almost entirely on Collins and Vant, who wondered how President Clinton had persuaded the two scientists to stop publicly criticizing each other's research and to declare a tie in the race to sequence the human genome. Almost no one noticed the quiet figure of Charles DeLisi in the audience. While other scientists have also proposed sequencing the human genome, Drisi was a key figure in making the idea a reality. Little is known about the important role that schizophrenia plays in driving the implementation of the project.
Born two days after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, Charles Delisi grew up in an Italian-American neighborhood in the Bronx, living with his grandparents in a large family and playing lacrosse on the street (DeLisi, 2022a). As an authentic New Yorker, he took full advantage of the educational resources the city had to offer, from DeWitt Clinton High School to the City College of New York and finally New York University. He was extremely interested in both physics and history, and although he received a doctorate in physics, he also made achievements in the field of history.
After receiving his Ph.D., Derisi spent three years as a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Chemistry at Yale University, followed by three years at Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, and another decade at the National Cancer Institute in Bethesda. It was in the 70s and early 80s of the 20th century that molecular biology developed rapidly, attracting many young graduates in the fields of biological and physical sciences. They were keen to continue the research of James Watson and Francis Crick who discovered the structure of DNA in 1953.
▷ Charles Delisi. Source: charlesdelisi.com
Although Derisi majored in physics, his research interests were wide-ranging. During his time at Yale, he studied the physical properties of DNA, and at the National Cancer Institute, he helped build one of the first DNA and protein sequence databases. Through his wife, Lynn DeLisi, a psychiatrist, he gained a deeper understanding of molecular biology. Lynn is a senior investigator at a research unit at the National Institute of Mental Health, led by schizophrenia researcher Dr. Richard Wyatt, and made up of young biological researchers eager to use emerging technologies to explore the causes and better treatments of schizophrenia, using emerging technologies such as neuroimaging, neurochemistry and genetics.
Lynn is a firm believer in schizophrenia as a genetic disorder and has been studying families with two or more diagnosed members since 1985. These families have become the "gold standard" for finding disease-causing genes (Schwab, 2022). Lynn recalls that she had "frequent discussions with Charles about issues such as DNA mapping." Charles also mentioned that "Lynn's encouragement and enthusiasm, as well as the constant convergence of our interests, became a positive motivation for the early years of my career."
By 1987, Lynn had identified the first families with schizophrenia (a number that later increased to more than 300), one of the largest datasets of its kind in the United States. This includes the Calvin family, seven of whose 12 children were diagnosed with schizophrenia spectrum disorder (Homann et al., 2016), which later became the subject of Robert Colker's 2020 bestseller, Hidden Valley Road: Inside the Mind of an American Family.
▷ Genetics study the famous Calvin family. Source: The Chinese version of "Hidden Valley Road".
In the spring of 1985, Charles Dreysi received a call from the White House Office of Science and Technology asking if he would be interested in serving as director of the Department of Energy's (DOE) Health and Environmental Research Program. Knowing that such an opportunity was rare, he accepted it without hesitation. Work experience at the DOE Los Alamos Laboratory has given him a deep understanding of the institution, particularly his research interest in the long-term genetic consequences of Japanese atomic bomb survivors.
By 1985, significant advances had been made in molecular biology, particularly in gene mapping and sequencing. Gene mapping involves identifying the specific locations of more than 20,000 genes on 22 pairs of chromosomes and sex chromosomes X and Y in humans, and each chromosome can carry anywhere from 300 to 3,000 genes. Sequencing, on the other hand, refers to determining the order of nucleotide base pairs in any given gene, which totals about 3 billion pairs. For example, the single gene causing Huntington's disease was successfully mapped in 1983, and the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis was pinpointed in 1989. At the same time, sequencing the whole genome of the virus, as well as small fragments of the human genome, is slowly underway. Some researchers are even beginning to explore the possibility of mapping and sequencing the entire human genome.
In order to delve into the genetic consequences of Japanese atomic bomb survivors, the DOE organized a workshop in 1985 on how to detect disease-causing genetic mutations. That fall, Drissi and his team began discussing the possibility of launching a project on the human genome. During this time, he was also discussing with his wife the importance of sequencing the human genome to identify the genes that cause schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders.
The experience of working in Washington gives Derisi an advantage in achieving his goals relative to other, more well-known colleagues. He began by assessing the level of support for the idea from the scientific community. To that end, in March 1986, the Department of Energy hosted a two-day seminar in Santa Fe that brought together more than forty leading human and molecular geneticists. While there was strong support for the plan, there was disagreement on how to implement it. The cost is expected to be as high as $3 billion, and the actual final cost is close to $2.7 billion. Derisi then assessed support within the Department of Energy and submitted to his superiors on May 6, 1986, a detailed plan and budget projection entitled "Proposal for a Major New Program: Mapping and Sequencing the Human Genome". The response from the department has been positive.
With a decade of observation experience in Washington, Drisi knew that to advance his plan, he needed to use a variety of means. The White House Office of Agency Management and Budget (OMB) is a major hurdle for any federal program that requires new funding, and it will be difficult to get through that step even if it goes well. During President Reagan's presidency, OMB made it clear to all federal agencies (except the Department of Defense) that it would not fund new projects. Luckily, the OMB budget reviewer in charge of the DOE project, who has a background in physics like Derisi, became an advocate for his plan.
Derisi realized he also needed strong support from Congress. Fortunately, the key Senate member who oversees the DOE's budget is Senator Pete Domenici from New Mexico. As a member of the budget committee and appropriations committee, Domenich is one of the most powerful figures in Washington. He immediately saw the potential benefits of Project Dreysi for New Mexico, which houses two DOE labs, Los Alamos and Sandia.
Domenich's support for the Human Genome Project also has his own personal reasons. His daughter was diagnosed with schizophrenia, which made it extremely concerning to his family. Domenich's wife, Nancy, was appointed to the National Advisory Council on Mental Health, which oversees NIMH research. Domenich's personal influence and focus on schizophrenia research are well known at the NIMH. Thus, in 1987, NIMH published a 198-page Special Report on Schizophrenia (Shore 1987), followed by a 100-page Report of the National Advisory Council on Mental Health on the National Program for Schizophrenia Research (Keith et al., 1988). Both reports highlight the enormous potential of genetic research in understanding the disease.
In 1990, at a Senate hearing on the budget for the Human Genome Project, Domenich made clear his commitment to the research. While he generally supports budget austerity, he passionately opposes the idea of cutting the project's budget by Bernard Davis, a microbiologist at Harvard University, who argues it would siphon money away from other valuable research. "As someone who should be very knowledgeable about the federal budget, I rarely see a project that is exciting enough to keep people like me trying to reduce the deficit enthusiastic. But I found such a project here" (Cook-Deegan, 1994, p. 174). A few years later, Domenich recommended Charles Derisi for the Presidential Citizen Medal from President Bill Clinton.
There is also a significant hurdle to overcome – deciding which federal agency will be in charge of the program. Until mid-1986, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) had little interest in Derichy or the Department of Energy's programs, believing that any important health program should naturally belong to the NIH. James Weingarden, then president of the NIH, privately ridiculed the Department of Energy's attempt to sequence the human genome, calling it "like the National Bureau of Standards proposing the construction of a B2 bomber" (Venter, p. 105). Many geneticists also looked down on De Dreysi's proposal, with one describing it as "a plan by the Department of Energy for unemployed bomb makers" (Cook-Deegan, p. 98).
By mid-1986, however, when De Dreysi's plan seemed to be making progress, the NIH began to sound the alarm. James Watson sought to meet with Drissey to see for himself what was happening. Watson agreed with Dreysi's direction of the program, but insisted that such a large project should be led by the NIH, with an experienced person like himself at the helm. In Washington, when agencies believe their territory is being violated, they tend to react as violently as rams in estrus season, with the voices of conflict extending beyond the Potomac River.
But this time it didn't happen, because there were private negotiations behind the scenes. As Robert Cook-Deegan describes in his book The Gene Wars, a striking feature of the Human Genome Project is that its conflicts have been contained, without degenerating into destructive distrust or direct confrontation between the NIH and the DOE before Congress...... If the front line is drawn, the Genome Project as a whole will almost certainly be delayed or disrupted (Cook-Deegan, p. 105).
By the fall of 1986, everything was ready, and the estimated cost of up to $3 billion could not stop the sequencing and sequencing of the human genome project. The Department of Energy established the Human Genome Office and allocated $4 million in initial funding to launch the project. In addition, it prepared a budget request of $13 million for fiscal year 1988. This request was approved by the Office of Management and Budget and then included in the presidential budget and eventually funded by Congress. It is worth mentioning that it has only been a year since Derisi and his team began to discuss the possible launch of the Human Genome Project.
In 1987, an academic institution in New York offered Charles Dreysi an attractive position, which he chose to accept. Over the next few months, the Department of Energy and the NIH engaged in low-key negotiations over the leadership of the Human Genome Project, culminating in a consensus in 1988 that the NIH would lead the program. Therefore, in the fall of 1988, the NIH established the National Human Genome Research Center and invited James Watson to be its director, initially setting 2001 as the target date for completing the mapping and sequencing of the human genome.
As a co-discoverer of the double helix structure of DNA, Watson naturally has a keen scientific interest in the progress of the Human Genome Project. At the same time, he also has extremely personal motivations. In November 1985, when the Department of Energy was working on preliminary plans for the project, Watson's 15-year-old son, Rufus, attempted suicide at the top of the World Trade Center, but was fortunately prevented in time (Aig, 1986). Subsequently, Rufus was diagnosed with schizophrenia and underwent six months of psychiatric treatment. In May 1986, he disappeared for several days after escaping from the hospital. This series of events hit Watson and his wife hard.
In a later interview, Watson confessed that he accepted the position of head of the Human Genome Project because of his son's condition: "I quickly realized that his problems were due to his genes. This drove me to lead the Human Genome Project. Decoding the genome became the only way for me to understand my son and help him lead a normal life" (Isaacson, 2021, p. 38–39). Walter Isaacson, summarizing the impact of Rufus's condition on Watson, noted:
Watson's scientific pursuits are intimately linked to his personal life. For him, the Human Genome Project was no longer just an academic quest, it became personal and urgent, almost obsessing him with the power of genetics to reveal the mysteries of human life. It is nature, not nurture, that has shaped Rufus (Isaacson, p. 38–39).
Thus, Charles Drisci, Pete Domenich, and James Watson, three key figures in driving the birth of the Human Genome Project, were all inextricably linked by a special focus on schizophrenia.
▷ Picture: 1989, a group photo of the pre-establishment meeting of the Human Genome Project, with Francis Collins and James Watson in the first row. Source: pubmed
02 Genome sequencing: the promise of schizophrenia
For researchers and families with a particular focus on schizophrenia, the Human Genome Project offers a silver lining. Given that schizophrenia is generally believed to have a genetic component, the goal of the project is to identify the genes that cause the disease and thus open the way to new treatments. Although it was initially thought that schizophrenia, similar to Mendelian disorders, may be caused by a single defective gene, most of the more than 5,000 monogenic disorders known affect very few people. Huntington's disease, cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia are some of the well-known monogenic diseases that affect about 15,000, 30,000 and 100,000 African Americans, respectively.
However, most schizophrenia researchers now believe that the disorder is not caused by a single gene, but rather the combined action of multiple genes that increase the risk of the disease. For example, the APOE gene is one of the so-called risk genes, which does not directly cause late-onset Alzheimer's disease, but increases the risk of developing the disease in people with certain variants. There are three variants of the APOE gene, of which the e4 variant is notorious for increasing the risk of late-onset Alzheimer's disease in carriers: about 25 percent of people of European descent with a single copy of the e4 variant more than double their risk, while individuals with two copies of the e4 variant are 8 to 10 times more likely. Carriers of other gene variants, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2, also face a higher risk of breast cancer and other cancers. These high-effect risk genes do not directly cause disease, but work together with one or more other causative factors.
The early days of the Human Genome Project were fraught with challenges. Watson reportedly took the direction of the project and "loomed over it like a giant" (Cook-Deegan, p. 161). Watson has a clear view of project management, but he is not known for his interpersonal skills. When Dr. Bernadine Healy was appointed NIH superintendent in April 1991, the conflict between the two men intensified. Six years earlier, Watson had belittled Dr. Healy (Cook-Deegan, p. 328) in the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy. Now, Dr. Healy is Watson's superior.
Watson's collaboration with Dr. Healy lasted only one year, until Watson's resignation in April 1992. They were able to work together for so long, largely due to the fact that the two barely communicated, and that Dr. Watson spent as little time in Washington as possible and more in his lab on Long Island. The two men disagreed on a number of issues, including whether the government should patent their DNA discoveries.
▷沃森（左）和希利（右）。 图源：wikipedia
The launch of the Human Genome Project has sparked a lot of discussion in the scientific community, especially about what it can achieve. Given its projected high cost, Congress is also concerned about this and has asked the National Research Council (NRC) of the National Academy of Sciences to conduct an evaluation. The 1988 NRC report strongly supported the Human Genome Project, arguing that it would greatly facilitate the ability to map and sequence genes that cause many diseases and potentially improve our understanding of cancer. Notably, the report also mentions that the Human Genome Project may be important for understanding some of the more common polygenic disorders, such as hypertension, schizophrenia, intellectual disability, and neural tube defects (National Academy of Sciences, 1988). Arguably, the potential benefits of the Human Genome Project for non-monogenic diseases were highlighted at the beginning of the project.
In a paper published in 1990, James Watson proposed that the information encoded by our DNA "not only helps us understand the function of healthy humans, but also chemically elucidates the role of genetic factors in a variety of diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and schizophrenia" (Watson, 1990). Considering that almost every American knows someone with cancer, Alzheimer's disease, or schizophrenia, the new pathways proposed by the Human Genome Project to treat diseases make federal investment even more attractive.
With the launch of the Human Genome Project, Steven Hyman was appointed head of the NIH. At just 43 years old, Heyman had degrees from Cambridge, Yale and Harvard, and had completed residency training in psychiatry and a five-year graduate training in molecular neurobiology, a rarity among American psychiatrists at the time. Hyman devoted himself to psychiatry because he was interested in communicating with people with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depression in medical school, and was curious about the mechanisms of mental illness, believing that new scientific approaches were urgently needed in this field (Hyman, 2018).
▷史蒂文·海曼. 图源:BrodintInstitute
was recruited to work at the NIMH in a decision that came from then-NIH superintendent Harold Varmus. Vams was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1989 for his contributions to the field of cancer gene research. For Wines, molecular biology, and genetics in particular, represents the way forward. In 1995, at a symposium of the National Academy of Sciences on schizophrenia, Vams made it clear that if one did not turn to genetic research, those who insisted on enzyme research, MRI and CT studies, and PET scans would be obsolete and "you would be a dinosaur" (Kolker, 2020, p. 252). He also told Hyman that the NIMH was in a mess and that its research portfolio was "outdated and incoherent," and stressed that Hyman's mission was to "address the problem" (Hyman, 2018).
Vams's assessment is accurate – there is a real mess in the NIMH's research portfolio. It is mostly occupied by psychologists, who focus on human behavior and cognition rather than mental illness. A 1999 critical report revealed a number of research projects supported by the agency, such as "Adolescent Romantic Relationships and Their Development," "Perception and Production Studies of Expressive Microstructures" to understand the aesthetic pleasure of music, and "Mating Phylogenetic Studies" in blue birds (Torrey et al., 1999). Further research found that NIMH funded thirty-three studies on different birds, including fourteen studies on pigeons. These studies attracted the attention of the Wall Street Journal and a critical article entitled "Bird's Brain" was published (Torrey, 2004).
Steven, who inherited this chaotic portfolio, struggled to distance himself from it. He openly expressed his dissatisfaction with certain projects that he was "not happy to fund" and promised to "continue to weed out questionable and irrelevant studies" (Holden, 1999). The cancellation of these old research projects freed up funds for, allowing him to invest in new projects in genetics and other molecular research areas. In addition, he has funded three high-profile treatment studies for schizophrenia, mania, and depression. For advocates working to improve the treatment of mental illness,'s support for these clinical studies and its elimination of unrelated studies is particularly important. In fact, by focusing on molecular research, radically shifted the direction of NIMH research, and its effects were not felt until a few years later.
After James Watson stepped down as director of the Human Genome Project in 1992, there was a vacancy in the leadership position. Dr. Haley persuaded Francis Collins to fill the void, then a professor of internal medicine and human genetics at the University of Michigan, who was actively involved in gene mapping and sequencing efforts in the Human Genome Project. His team had a significant impact on the scientific community by successfully identifying the cystic fibrosis gene in 1989 and the neurofibromatosis gene the following year. Collins not only has a high reputation in his professional field, but he is also respected by his colleagues for his medical missionary work in Nigeria. Collins was so enthusiastic about the Human Genome Project that when he was appointed project director, he called it "the most important and meaningful project ever launched" (Kolata, 1993).
Collins got the Human Genome Project back on track, but he faced numerous scientific and political challenges, many of which were directly related to Craig Vant. Wendt joined the NIH in 1984 as an in-house investigator at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). He holds a Ph.D. in Physiology and Pharmacology from the University of California, San Diego and served in the U.S. Navy during the Vietnam War.
▷ Francis Collins (left) and Craig Venter (right). Source: Wikipedia
Collins and Went differ markedly in their personalities and approaches. Collins was a devout Christian who published the best-selling book The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief, while Venter proudly proclaimed himself an atheist. Collins was able to build friendly relations with everyone, while Venter didn't seem to care much about what others thought of him. Collins followed Watson's more conservative approach to the Human Genome Project, emphasizing genetic mapping first and then sequencing, while Went advocated a more radical approach to direct sequencing. Collins advocated that all data should be made public immediately, and Ventere was willing to retain some data for a certain period of time to facilitate cooperation with the private sector. This mix of personalities and approaches bodes well for the challenges ahead.
Venter's interest in the scientific and commercial potential of the Human Genome Project grew, especially after the project was launched in 1989. He was convinced that using shotgun sequencing, in which DNA is cut into small pieces for sequencing and recombination, would be faster and more accurate than Watson and other project leaders had planned. By combining special forms of DNA called complementary DNA, or cDNA, Venter has perfected this approach. His attempts to test the method in the NIH's laboratory were hampered by resource constraints. He sought the help of James Watson on several occasions, and despite his promises of support, he ultimately failed to deliver.
By 1992, Venter was frustrated by the federal government's procrastination and lack of imagination and left the NIH three months after Watson left. As one historical record states, the reason for Vent's departure was that "in his view, the institution neither fully supported nor fully recognized the importance of his work" (Cowan et al., 2002).
By 1992, the NIH's Human Genome Project was steadily advancing, attracting the attention of venture capitalists and biotech entrepreneurs who saw it as a potentially huge business opportunity. Craig Venter successfully raised funds and founded the Genome Institute, where he continued his research and demonstrated the efficiency of his shotgun sequencing method by rapidly sequencing the genome of a bacterium. When a new, faster sequencing device was introduced, the developers of the device partnered with Went to form Celera Genomics. The company plans to sequence the human genome and the genome of other organisms, while "patenting specific genes and selling the rights to use the Celera database and computerized screening facilities to pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies" (Cowan et al., 2002).
In 1998, a competition began to see who would be the first to sequence the human genome. On the one hand, the publicly-funded Human Genome Project, led by Francis Collins, and its international partners, notably the Sanger Institute in the United Kingdom, and on the other hand, Craig Venter and his privately funded Celera Genomics, which represents a multitude of biotech companies eager to share in the potential profits. Both sides claim to have the upper hand in this "genetic war" and criticize each other's achievements. Collins criticized Went's sequencing results, arguing that they should not be published in formal scientific journals. Went ridiculed Collins's project for being expensive and far less efficient than his own (Issackson, p. 39). As the controversy intensified, one journalist noted: "The Human Genome Project, once one of humanity's noblest undertakings, is now more like a quagmire wrestling" (Venter, p. 298).
By the summer of 1999, the outcome of the war had become apparent. Celera sequenced 120 million base pairs of the Drosophila genome in just four months, while the Human Genome Project expects 12 to 18 months to complete the same task (Cowan et al., 2002). Sequencing of the human genome is progressing rapidly, but the ongoing public dispute has had a negative impact on Wall Street stock markets. It was time for reconciliation, and President Clinton instructed aides to "let these guys work together" (Venter, p. 301).
Collins and Venter then held a series of secret meetings in the basement of a townhouse in the suburbs of Washington, during which there was no shortage of pizza and beer (Issackson, p. 40). They decided to end hostilities and, together with President Clinton, announced the completion of the human genome. The two men were each given 10 minutes to speak at a White House press conference, and their findings will be published in a leading scientific journal at the same time.
At a White House news conference, Collins and Venter appeared in a photo with President Clinton, each smiling and holding a Time magazine cover showing them, with his Chinese Trines standing slightly in front of Collins. Charles Dreysi and James Watson attended the event as guests. In his opening remarks, President Clinton said, "Today, we are interpreting the language in which God created life. Our awe for the complexity, beauty, and most wonderful gifts of God grows deeper. ”
Collins then speaks, also thanks to God: "We have a glimpse of our own manual, a book that used to be known only to God" (Khullar, 2022). In his autobiography, Venter expressed his satisfaction with the events of the day, except for those references to God: "I am more in awe of the idea of myself as a self-replicating chemical over the course of four billion years of evolution, than the idea of a cosmic watchmaker who put it together at random" (Venter, p. 313).
Although the human genome sequence, celebrated at a press conference in 2000, was called a "working draft" that covered 90 percent of the genome and contained many errors, the achievement still gave rise to widespread predictions about its potential benefits. Francis Collins told a congressional committee that this marks the "dawn of a true genomic era" in medicine, allowing us to "understand the role of genetic factors in health and disease and quickly apply that understanding to prevention, diagnosis, and treatment." He predicts that in the next decade, "there will be predictive genetic testing for many common diseases." By 2020, "gene-based customized drugs could be used to treat diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, high blood pressure, and many other diseases...... There will be a revolution in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness" (Collins, 2003a).
For mental illness, the benefits of the Human Genome Project are particularly significant. Collins said, "The genomic age holds great promise for all people suffering from mental illness...... Gene-based research will play a central role in the development of new drugs...... Just as antibiotics revolutionized the treatment of infectious diseases in the 20th century, genomic research is poised to revolutionize the treatment of mental illness in the 21st century" (Collins, 2003b).
Leaders of the American psychiatric community also joined Collins in welcoming the genomic era. Stephen Heyman, who completed his five-year term as NIMH superintendent in 2001, said he was "confident that we will find the genes associated with most mental illnesses at a much faster pace...... Highly selective, safe, and effective new therapies for common psychiatric disorders will become possible in the near future" (Cowan et al., 2002).
Thomas Insel, who took over as NIMH superintendent in 2002, similarly believes that "the promise is enormous...... We have the opportunity to revolutionize the way mental disorders are diagnosed and treated in the genomic age" (Insel and Collins, 2003). Insell later admitted to "investing heavily in genomics" during his tenure (Barry, 2022). Nobel laureate Eric Kandel emphasized that the genomic era will bring unprecedented advances in neurology and psychiatry.
"These results will be so rich that, without exaggeration, it will revolutionize both disciplines and provide them with a solid scientific foundation, which is often one of their main goals, although these goals are often not explicitly articulated" (Cowan and Kandel, 2001).
It seems that a new era in psychiatry has arrived.
But is that really the case? NextQuestion will continue to report on you in the next part, so stay tuned.
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