In such an era, the great philosophers are also confused?

"Forgotten Poems"

"Man stands by his thoughts. ”

The Renaissance brought about the awakening of human nature, the Reformation ushered in spiritual freedom, and it was the Enlightenment that swept Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries that really pushed people out of the barriers of medieval Christian culture and into the trend of Western cultural modernization. The cry of reason emanated from Voltaire and soon became the clarion call of the times that resounded throughout Europe, and became the universal upbringing of the new era under the impetus of spiritual leaders such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, Holbach, and Kant.

However, the germination and realization of ideas does not happen overnight.

Like us, the great thinkers experienced confusion, hesitation, and hesitation, and were individuals who sought answers in the midst of worldly life and existential dilemmas.

Zhao Lin, a professor at Wuhan University's School of Philosophy, wrote "Co-Molding: The Evolution of the Spirit of Western Culture" to present readers with true portraits of these philosophers.

As the final chapter of the "Civilization Trilogy", the book reveals the tension between reason and faith from the historical process of the development and evolution of Christian culture, and places the evolution of thought in a specific historical situation, thus profoundly revealing the cultural background and spiritual context of the Western Enlightenment.

This article selects three representative philosophers, Kant, Rousseau, and Hume, who show surprising contradictions in the face of the great themes of the times, and convey extremely complex interpretations of life and society.

Hume: A "good old man," but also a pagan?

Hume was gentle and kind, and he made many friends, and everyone praised him. is such a "good old man", but he has a cold and sharp suspicion and criticism of religion. As the British biographer Boswell put it: "It is incomprehensible that such a man of great insight, such a man of great insight, such a man of understanding, discernment, and handsomeness, should be a great infidel."

Hume grew up in a strict Calvinist environment in Scotland, but as a young man, he felt the harmful effects of traditional religion (Christianity) on society as deeply as the radical Enlightenment in France at the time. Although Hume did not reach the conclusion of atheism during his lifetime, he always sought to question and critique the various evidences of religious belief from a theoretical point of view. At that time, the evidence of religious belief could be roughly divided into two aspects, one was miracle and the other was rational argument (the religion of revelation and the religion of nature were at one end of the other), and Hume's refutation of various religious evidences was also carried out from these two aspects.

"Forgotten Poems"

Like all empiricists, Hume identified experience as the basis of all knowledge, and he believed that the reliability and validity of any evidence must be tested empirically. Hume's basic principle is that "our ideas are beyond our experience", and all his philosophical and religious criticisms are based on this principle as an absolute premise.

At the end of the Study of Human Understanding, the always cautious English philosopher says, in a radical tone: "If we take a book in our hands, such as a book of theology or scholasticism, we may ask, does it contain any abstract inferences about numbers and quantities? Does it contain any empirical inferences about real facts and existence? Then we can cast it into the fire, because it contains nothing but sophistry and fantasy. ”

Hume was a fierce and ruthless critique of all arguments for religious belief, but his motive was not to radically subvert religious belief – which was his fundamental difference from the 18th-century French atheists – but to refute all rational proofs of religious belief and thus base religious belief on personal conscience and emotion. Hume emphasized that a skeptic does not doubt the existence of God, but only the various rational proofs of God's existence, and doubts the practice of people making assumptions about the nature of God on the basis of their own limited reason. Skeptics take an unresolved attitude to metaphysical questions such as the nature of God, not because of doubts about the object of faith itself, but because of doubts about their own rational faculties. Therefore, only skeptics are truly worthy of divine grace.

Rousseau: "rebel", but convinced of God?

Of all the French Enlightenment thinkers of the 18th century, and even of all the European thinkers of the 18th century, Rousseau could be called a "rebel", who was a maverick and carried out a comprehensive and complete subversion of almost all the mainstream values of traditional society, single-handedly confronting the entire French high society and intellectual elite.

Rousseau's radical and excessive thinking, emotional turbulence, perverse and sensitive character, and rugged style are all incomparable.

In terms of political thought, when Voltaire, Montesquieu and others were looking forward to the enlightened autocracy and constitutional monarchy of the Bourbon dynasty, Rousseau held high the banner of freedom and equality and launched the most fierce attack on the feudal system of the whole of Europe. A return to the extremes of nature to signify his complete break with the whole hypocritical Parisian high society.

However, in terms of religious attitudes, while Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire had taken deism to the extreme and the Encyclopaedists had openly raised the banner of atheism, Rousseau still adhered to the Christian faith and was torn between Catholicism and Protestantism (Calvinism).

"The Earth"

The Lisbon earthquake of 1755 allowed Voltaire to use the topic as a poignant satire on Leibniz's optimism of the "best of the world" and Pope's view that "everything is right." The poem published by Voltaire about the earthquake in Lisbon greatly angered Rousseau.

In Rousseau's view, Voltaire's poem not only denies God's justice, but also implies doubts about God's existence. In a letter to Voltaire dated August 18, 1756, Rousseau accused Voltaire of ostensibly believing in God but in fact believing in the devil. He was unsparing in pointing out that the pampered great philosopher had tried to use this catastrophe to stifle the hopes of mankind, and that "the absurdity of this argument is especially disgusting."

According to Rousseau, ideas and religious beliefs about God cannot be derived from rational reasoning or metaphysical speculation, but are rooted in man's innermost emotional experience.

Faced with the atmosphere of skepticism stirred up by Voltaire, Rousseau unswervingly expressed his belief in the existence of God and the immortality of the soul: "The perplexity of metaphysics cannot tempt me for a moment to doubt the eternal existence of my soul and the God of my spirit, I feel it, I believe in it, I yearn for it, I look forward to it, and I will defend it as long as it remains." ”

Although Rousseau grew up in Geneva, the stronghold of Calvinism, and was briefly converted to Catholicism at the urging of his beloved Madame Warren, and later converted to Protestantism, his melancholy and romantic temperament and freedom-loving nature led him to prefer a Lutheran cheerful religious attitude to a Calvinist stereotype.

Like Eckhart and Luther, among others, Rousseau was convinced that religious life was an intrinsic moral life. A person with true religious beliefs should be sincere and good because of God's love for goodness, endure pain without complaint because he believes in God's justice, and he should always face God with joy in the midst of his difficult fate.

Rousseau's natural religion, which was based on virtue, conscience, and free will, was not limited to an external form of religion, but confronted God and the natural world created by God with reverence. Rousseau opposed both the cumbersome formal logic used in scholasticism to argue for the existence of God, and the mechanistic model of deism that uses the principle of analogy to infer the existence of God, but advocated that the existence of God can be directly felt from every plant and tree of nature through sincere conscience and emotion. In Rousseau's account of the existence of God, a distinctly pantheistic character is presented.

Immanuel Kant: Inwardly pious, but not God?

Kant always adhered to a pious attitude to life, and highly praised the Pietists, whom he regarded as "serious and outstanding men", who "possessed noble human sentiments—a peace of mind that cannot be destroyed by steadyness, optimism, and any desire, and who are not afraid of hardship or oppression, and who cannot be motivated by any dispute to feelings of hatred and hostility." ”

Kant was born into a family of saddlers in Königsberg, Prussia (present-day Kaliningrad), and his parents were very devout Christians. Königsberg, despite its northern location, was the birthplace and important fortress of Pietism, just like Halle. Since he was a child, Kant was nurtured by the spiritual atmosphere of Pietism in his family, so that he always maintained an inner devotion to the Christian faith throughout his life, especially the noble virtue of self-discipline emphasized by Pietism, which had a profound influence on Kant's thought. But on the other hand,

Kant also had a deep dislike for the rigid religious rituals he had followed in Pietist schools as a child, and this disgust led Kant to adopt a critical attitude towards various formalized and institutionalized church norms throughout his life, and rarely went to church.

The tension between the intrinsic devotion to the Christian faith and the strong antipathy to the existing church system and rituals determined Kant's basic stance on Christianity, which led him to fiercely criticize all attempts to justify religious doctrines in a formalistic way, and on the other hand, to base a true religious belief on the inner moral imperative.

If Kant in the Critique of Pure Reason rejects all theoretical proofs of the existence of God, then in the Critique of Practical Reason he establishes a moral argument for the existence of God (although Kant himself repeatedly emphasizes that this suspension of practical reason is not a theoretical proof).

He destroyed the traditional rational theology and constructed a moral theology in the modern sense.

The most important revelation of Kant's moral theology to future generations is that the existence of God is not objectively necessary, but subjectively necessary, and that it is not based on the logical reasoning of a theory, but on the moral imperative of a practice.

In other words, the existence of God is only a subjective necessity for the moral practice of human beings.

The Last Days of Immanuel Kant

When talking about Kant's religious thought, Heine once expressed a famous point. He argues that Kant, as an iron-faced and selfless philosopher, cut off the head of a deistic God with the axe of theoretical reason, but considering that good people like Lampey the Sr. (Kant's servant) had no philosophical literacy—for whom they could not expect happiness (commensurate with morality) without God—Kant resurrected God in the realm of practical reason.

As to whether Kant himself believed in God, this is a rather controversial issue. The general view is that Kant himself did not believe in an external God, and that it was sufficient for him to have an inner morality. Kant has repeatedly emphasized that morality itself is self-sufficient and does not need a God to base it on. For Kant, God is nothing more than the embodiment of the moral law, and true religion is nothing more than a belief in pure practical reason.

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and (min-width:1024px) and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){body:not(.pages_skin_pc) .wx-root[data-weui-mode=care]:not([data-weui-theme=light]),body:not(.pages_skin_pc) body[data-weui-mode=care]:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--weui-BG-0: #111;--weui-BG-1: #1e1e1e;--weui-BG-2: #191919;--weui-BG-3: #202020;--weui-BG-4: #404040;--weui-BG-5: #2c2c2c;--weui-FG-0: rgba(255, 255, 255, .. 85);--weui-FG-HALF: rgba(255, 255, 255, .65);--weui-FG-1: rgba(255, 255, 255, .55);--weui-FG-2: rgba(255, 255, 255, .35);--weui-FG-3: rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);--weui-FG-4: rgba(255, 255, 255, .15);--weui-FG-5: rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);--weui-RED: #fa5151;--weui-ORANGERED: #ff6146;--weui-ORANGE: #c87d2f;--weui-YELLOW: #cc9c00;--weui-GREEN: #74a800;--weui-LIGHTGREEN: #3eb575;--weui-FIRE: #07c160;--weui-BLUE: #10aeff;--weui-INDIGO: #1196ff;;--weui-PURPLE: #8183ff;--weui-WHITE: rgba(255, 255, 255, .8);--weui-LINK: #7d90a9;--weui-TEXTGREEN: #259c5c;--weui-FG: #fff;--weui-BG: #000;--weui-TAG-TEXT-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, 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rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);--weui-RED: #fa5151;--weui-ORANGERED: #ff6146;--weui-ORANGE: #c87d2f;--weui-YELLOW: #cc9c00;--weui-GREEN: #74a800;--weui-LIGHTGREEN: #3eb575;;--weui-FIRE: #07c160;--weui-BLUE: #10aeff;--weui-INDIGO: #1196ff;--weui-PURPLE: #8183ff;--weui-WHITE: rgba(255, 255, 255, .8);--weui-LINK: #7d90a9;--weui-TEXTGREEN: #259c5c;--weui-FG: #fff;--weui-BG: #000;--weui-TAG-TEXT-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-RED: rgba(250, 81, 81, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .. 6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .05)}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px) and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){body:not(.pages_skin_pc) .wx-root:not([data-weui-theme=light]), 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157, 59, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-ORANGE: rgba(250, 157, 59, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .6); --weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-GREEN: rgba(6, 174, 86, .) 1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .6);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLUE: rgba(16, 174, 255, .1);--weui-TAG-TEXT-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-TAG-BACKGROUND-BLACK: rgba(255, 255, 255, .05)}}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){.wx-root:not([data-weui-theme=light]),body:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--discussInput-BG: rgba(255, 255, 255, .03)}}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){.wx-root:not([data-weui-theme=light]), body:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--nickName-FG: #959595}}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){.wx-root:not([data-weui-theme=light]),body:not([data-weui-theme=light]){--weui-BG-0: #111;--weui-BG-1: #1e1e1e;--weui-BG-2: #191919;--weui-BG-3: #202020;--weui-BG-4: #404040;--weui-BG-5: #2c2c2c;--weui-FG-0: rgba(255, 255, 255, .8);--weui-FG-HALF: rgba(255, 255, 255, .6);--weui-FG-1: rgba(255, 255, 255, .5);--weui-FG-2: 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