Pharaoh
Pharaoh
Throughout the art of painting in the mainland, in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, painting appeared in the field of handicraft industry and commerce.
In the Sui and Tang dynasties, the glory of economy, culture, religion, and art led to the emergence of painting transactions that began to take shape in the trading market.
With the rise of literati collecting, painting collection has entered a new stage.
By the time of the Ming Dynasty, there were two extremes in society, with thinkers either absolutely conservative or extremely progressive, civil officials or corrupt or honest and honest, etc., providing history with a general record of failure.
During this period of the Ming Dynasty, the mature feudal society showed a scene of coming to an end, and capitalism sprouted in the Jiangnan region.
The capitalist factor had an impact on people's life and production ideology at that time, which in turn changed the art of painting.
So, what were the types of commercial paintings in the Ming Dynasty, and what changes did the trade in painting bring to the country?
1. The state of the painting market in the Ming Dynasty
(1) The situation of the "supplier" side of the painting market in the Ming Dynasty
Under the influence of social aesthetic psychology, the literati painters of the Ming Dynasty consciously joined the ranks of painting sellers.
For example, Lan Ying, Wu Wei, Chen Laolian, Dong Qichang, Shen Zhou, etc., they Xi take it for granted to charge pen fees, and even ask someone to write for them when they are overwhelmed.
In the middle of the Ming Dynasty, the literati's painting environment gradually became a means of seeking material utilitarianism, and was no longer a spiritual home for pure self-entertainment and self-comfort, thus breaking the value function of literati painting in the Song and Yuan dynasties.
The painters of the Ming Dynasty also gradually became citizens, and under the influence of commercial economy, selling for money became the purpose of their paintings, and the feeling of detachment and transcendence was missing in Ming paintings.
For example, as an ordinary person, Shen Zhou is neither as indifferent to folk affairs as Zhuang Xuezhi, nor as disrespectful as Buddhists.
At that time, his paintings had just been sold in the morning, and the fakes would appear in the afternoon.
However, Shen Zhou is a gentle, courteous and frugal thinker, turning a blind eye to the falsification of his works, and does not care.
Painters of the Ming Dynasty joined the tide of commoditization of painting, and the "supply" side of the market was produced, and a certain scale was formed to provide goods for the "seeker" side.
(2) The situation of the "seeking" side of the painting market in the Ming Dynasty
In the painting art market of the Ming Dynasty, the consumers were mainly wealthy merchants, burghers, and officials.
Among them, merchants in the Ming Dynasty sponsored painters to promote the development of art, and were the main consumers in the painting market.
In ancient times, the social status of the mainland was arranged by "Shi Nong and Shang Gong". The demeanor of the doctor class is elegant, and the businessmen at the end of the "four people" have almost nothing to do with elegance.
With the expansion of the commodity economy in the Ming Dynasty, the merchant class also grew, and the merchants urgently needed to change their status at the end of the "Four Peoples".
With their own strong economic strength and the cause of cultural construction, people consciously moved closer to the scholarly class.
According to the distinction between literati and doctors, their own image is reset, that is, "although they are Jia, they are close to the morale".
Merchants of the Ming Dynasty actively sponsored literati, vassalized elegance, and actively invested in cultural and artistic undertakings such as art collection activities.
Because the influence of literati in the Ming Dynasty was greater than that of the general public, they were important disseminators of public opinion, and merchants mostly attached themselves to it.
In addition to the merchant patrons of the extremely high economic and social class, the burgher class was also an important consumer, and they traded mainly in the form of silver and goods.
In the 18th century, customers who bought paintings with cash were the main consumers of paintings in Yangzhou.
At the same time, in the Ming Dynasty, the literati had a high status, the officials were born in the imperial examination, the art of calligraphy and painting was profound, and the attainments of calligraphy and painting were high.
Buying and selling paintings and calligraphy in the study room was a pleasure for the literati painters of the Ming Dynasty
(3) Painting trading methods
In the Ming Dynasty, there were two main ways to trade paintings: shop bazaars and private transactions.
Ming collectors' collections came from gifts from relatives and friends, emperors' rewards, and contributions from subordinates, but one of the most progressive methods was through market trading.
The fact that the paintings are traded in the market and reach the collectors reflects the progressive nature of the trading activities.
In the middle of the Ming Dynasty, handicraft production flourished and the commodity economy developed, and many large merchant cities emerged, such as Nanjing, which was instilled by the five directions of Beijing and the indoctrination of all countries.
During the Zhengde period, there were 104 kinds of commercial shops, including painting shops, fan surfaces, shops, and selling paintings, and customizing pictures for customers.
In the Ming Dynasty, painting shops were mostly opened for painters and painters to trade in paintings.
At the same time, in the Ming Dynasty, there were also regular collection fairs, festivals, and collection fairs, which sold antique paintings and calligraphy.
As recorded in the scenery of Dijing, "today's Beidu Lamp City...... Three generations of eight dynasties of antiques, people can not take care of it, and the side of the hundred eagles is also. ”
Stimulated by the huge profit margin of collecting, antique dealers selling paintings and calligraphy joined the market.
Private transactions have a large concealment, and flexibility belongs to the main body of painting transactions.
In the Ming Dynasty, the private transactions of paintings included door-to-door sales, bartering, currency transactions, and favors.
Vendors of antique paintings and calligraphy walk the streets to sell their collections, and the way they buy and sell is very flexible.
2. The commercial characteristics of painting art in the Ming Dynasty
(1) Tolerance
Since the birth of the traditional art market, it has had a commercial function.
In the Ming Dynasty, although counterfeits were rampant in the painting trade, the employment channels were broadened by participating in the painting trade.
And people can face it calmly, and even some painters personally participate in ghostwriting, and the tolerance of the painting trading market is highlighted.
As a form of forgery in calligraphy and painting, wearing a pen refers to the author asking others to compose calligraphy and painting on his behalf, and then inscribe the name and affix his own seal.
In the Ming Dynasty, due to the excessive number of painters and limited personal energy, and at the same time, after literati paintings entered the market in the form of commodities, the social demand increased, so the phenomenon of painting ghostwriting was widespread.
As Liu Bangyan said, "Send paper and knock on the door to ask for frequent paintings, and you must turn into a golden immortal with 10 billion bodies."
In the painting market at that time, Wen Huiming's most famous ghostwriter was Zhu Lang, who specialized in imitating Wen.
According to records, a person living in Jinling was given a gift by the boy to a friend living in Suzhou, hoping that the friend would ask for a fake of Hui Zhong, and the boy mistakenly sent it to Hui Zhong After seeing the painting, Hui Zhong smiled and said, "I painted the real Heng Mountain, and talked about being a fake Lang Kehu", which shows the painter's tolerance for fakes.
(2) Deceptiveness
The deceptiveness of the Ming Dynasty painting trade is manifested in the irregularities in the transaction, such as copying and destroying the paintings.
The target of the counterfeiters is the famous masterpieces handed down from ancient times, and the objects that are often imitated are Li Zhaodao's picture of the sea and the sky, Wang Weijiang's intention to dry the snow, and Zhang Zeduan's Qingming Shanghe picture.
Because the counterfeiters are able to study the tradition and have a deep skill, although the paintings made are fakes, some of the works still have high artistic attainments and have a good sales momentum.
In addition to ancient paintings, the works of famous artists at that time were also the objects of copying and forgery, and in Suzhou at that time, Shen Zhou's paintings were forged. and trafficked to Fujian, Sichuan and Shu.
In the Suzhou area, Li Zhaodao and Zhao Boxiao are ancient masters whose works have been imitated a lot.
At the same time, in the Ming Dynasty, the conditions for publishing and printing were relatively developed, and facsimiles played a certain role in promoting the circulation of works of art, so that the excessive concentration of ancient and modern famous paintings was effectively alleviated.
In the Ming Dynasty courtyard paintings and Zhejiang school paintings, there are many cases of changing and adding money, and the forgers often dig out the names of Lin Liang and Dai Jin's works, change them to Song people's models, and sell them in the form of Song paintings.
Driven by economic interests, the counterfeiting and selling of fake paintings on behalf of others has gradually become large-scale, and counterfeiters have emerged who specialize in fabricating fake painting descriptions and manufacturing works of ancient masters, such as Zhang Taijie.
3. The influence of the commerciality of painting art in the Ming Dynasty
(1) The influence on the subject of creation and the art of painting
In the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, commercialization was established in literati painting, which had a profound impact on the art of literati painting.
It was a turning point in the history of literati painting, which changed the identity of the subject of painting, shifted the center of painting, and changed the way of sponsorship.
After the commercialization of literati painting, the identity of the subject of painting changed.
In the past, literati doctors were the main creative subjects of paintings, and official changes "were the typical characteristics of their identities, and leisure and lyrical expression were the main creative purposes of literati doctors."
At the same time, the status of the "official" of the Tu Dafu makes the art of painting have the function of "edification", and the function of lyrical expression cannot be brought into full play.
However, after the commodification of painting, the creative subject shed the shell of an official, and had more freedom to express his feelings and less political worries.
In the late Ming Dynasty, when "human affection is fast with debauchery", the spirit of curiosity and freedom was brought into the painting world by the literati, breaking through the aesthetic concept of "neutralization".
For example, the paintings of Chen Hongshou, Xu Wei, Wu Bin, Cui Zizhong and others at that time highlighted the "strange" and "crazy" style.
Chen Hongchuan's "Yang Shen and Other Flowers" depicts the madness and debauchery of Yang Shen after he was demoted to southern Yunnan because his political views did not conform to the emperor's wishes.
After getting drunk, Yang Shen arranged flowers on his temples and played with prostitutes.
With the help of this painting, the artist's "self-indulgent mentality" is expressed, and at the same time, the commodification of painting makes the painting concentrated in the collector's house.
The painter kept in touch with the collector, so as to provide convenience for the painter to appreciate and climb the fine paintings left behind, and improve the painting technique.
(2) Transform "elite art" into "popular art".
Promoting the popularization of painting is the influence of commodity economic factors on painting in the Ming Dynasty.
In the Ming Dynasty, Lanzhu can be given to Confucian scholars, princes and nobles, and is also suitable for peddlers and pawns, and is suitable for a variety of occasions.
The calligraphy and painting of the Ming Dynasty was no longer limited to the social elite, but also circulated among the masses.
At the same time, the literati painters of the Ming Dynasty were no longer mysterious and reserved, and even began to cater to the requirements of the vassal elegance of the merchants, and gradually broke the limitations of traditional aesthetics as the standard.
Under the influence of the commodity economy of the Ming Dynasty, the art of painting transformed into "popular art", and the scope of recipients expanded, from literati and doctors to wealthy merchants and burghers.
The prosperity of the trading market, the increase of works, and the growth of social demand have all promoted the integration of professional painters and literati painters, and the creation of painting has flourished.
At the same time, these writers began to be grounded in practical life and became innovators with an enterprising zeitgeist.
For example, although Tang Yin's painter skills are not as good as Qiu Ying's, he is also profitable, placing himself at the intersection of popular culture and layer culture, enriching the art of painting and promoting popular painting.
(3) The practice of shoddy fabrication and counterfeiting is prevalent
In the market for painting commodities, the art of painting was treated by economic means, which lowered the overall level of painting. The paintings were shoddy and counterfeit was prevalent.
In the middle of the Ming Dynasty, capitalism sprouted, the wealthy class and the burgher class increased, and the "seeking" side of painting increased, thus stimulating the development of the "supply" class.
In the case of short supply, the phenomenon of counterfeiting, shoddy work, and ghostwriting of paintings occurs, and painters regard the economy as the purpose of painting, and have a negative attitude towards painting, pursuing quantity, and being tolerant of ghostwriting fraud.
Under the stimulus of the commodity economy, the purpose of painters and dealers is to make profits, the artistic ethics of painters are lost, and the commodity economy has a negative impact on the art of painting.