Restore the truth: who controls the 13 "root servers" of the global network?
The Struggle for the Digital Frontier of Human Society: The Historical Origins of Internet Governance
Data is the new oil.
- Clive Humby, British data merchant
The data is not new oil, but new nuclear energy.
—James Bridle, British technology thinker
As a product of the strategic confrontation of nuclear deterrence in the Cold War era that mutually assured destruction, the Internet is the military, academic and government affairs network of the United States. As an important fulcrum of American world power in the post-Cold War era, the Internet began to be civilized, commercialized and internationalized in the United States, changing from the national network of the United States to the international network of the United States.
As the focus of interests, culture and power competition between major powers at the end of the post-Cold War era, a new civilization of human society has been brewing in the political, economic, domestic and international dimensions of information technology. Whether the Internet serves a small universe where a few people are arched and roaming, or a large world where hundreds of millions of people seek a better life, the debate around these two futures will delineate the digital frontier of human society. This controversy is bound to be deeply embedded in the zeitgeist of the 21st century, and is a constant reminder that a new era of space competition has arrived beyond the earth, sea, and sky.
▍ Lincoln Plan, land, sea and air
The idea of the Internet originally came from the technical inspiration for building an interstellar Internet, but the actual driving force was the US Department of Defense. In August 1949, the Soviet Union tested and exploded the first atomic bomb, and the United States immediately gathered the forces of the army, navy and air force and established the "Air Defense System Engineering Committee." In order to prevent enemy bombers from flying at low altitude to avoid radar detection, it is necessary to set up radar stations on the ground and quickly exchange information between radar stations. Therefore, in December 1949, the Air Defense System Engineering Committee proposed that the command and control system be innovated with the help of high-speed electronic computer technology, which can not only allow the radar stations to quickly transmit information and communicate with each other, but also centralized control and central coordination, and each radar station can also become the command center of the national defense system with the help of computers, "both decentralized and multi-centralized", this common command and control system research of the army, navy and air force was named the "Lincoln Project" and established the "Lincoln Laboratory" at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The U.S. semi-autonomous air defense system, established on June 26, 1958, and used until the 80s of the 20th century, is a product of Project Lincoln, in which countless American scientists have participated, including those who created the Internet. It can be said that the "Lincoln Plan" is the cradle of the American Internet, and it is the deterrent and peaceful strategic competition between the United States and the Soviet Union that guarantees mutual destruction that gave birth to the Internet.
In October 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite of human society, which greatly stimulated the US government. In February 1958, U.S. President Dwight Dwight D. Eisenhower decided to create the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), which was responsible for integrating U.S. missile research and distinguishing between military and civilian space research, with the first three major research projects being space technology, ballistic missile defense, and solid propellants. DARPA adapts to the needs of academic research and adopts a more flexible organizational model: instead of hiring a large number of civil servants like other government departments, it selects outstanding scientists from society as research project directors, signs short-term contracts with them for three to five years, and grants them great freedom to fund research that they believe will benefit the military, and they will use their expertise and research connections to form research groups with universities and commercial companies. This organizational model is both risky and rewarding, and has attracted academia with its unattainable technological dreams, which is largely why the United States has long maintained its dominance of advanced technology on a global scale. In 1960, DARPA handed over all civilian space programs to NASA and military space programs to various branches of the U.S. military. Since then, DARPA has continued to lead U.S. high-tech research, including anti-ballistic missiles, nuclear test detection, radar, high-energy beams, advanced materials, stealth compounds, battlefield sensors, lasers, non-acoustic submarine detection, nanotechnology, and computer science including graphics simulation, and the Internet is part of the military information technology revolution driven by DARPA.
The semi-automatic air defense system developed by the Lincoln Project has two sets, one for war readiness, one for backup, and a backup semi-automatic defense and control system, as well as a complete set of expensive mainframe computers, and defense contractors responsible for technical maintenance. In order to avoid idle and abandoned backup systems, in June 1961, the U.S. Department of Defense established the Office of Information Processing Technology under DARPA, which was responsible for conducting command and control system research and studying how to connect the Department of Defense computers in important places. The first director of the Office of Information Processing Technology was Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider, an American psychologist, computerist, and expert in the field of human-computer interaction, who served from October 1962 to July 1964 and again from 1974 to 1975. Lichyde has been engaged in semi-automatic prevention and control system research for a long time, and after he took office, in the "Interstellar Computer Network Concept" series of discussions, he put forward the idea of establishing a global computer interconnection network system, which promoted the establishment of computer science departments at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, UCLA, UC Berkeley and other universities, and promoted time-sharing packet switching technology that allows multiple programs to run simultaneously to make full use of computer processing power, and connect various time-sharing LANs together. The U.S. military is of great interest to having information distributed throughout the system through different circuits, allowing information to be controlled and transmitted even if a network is compromised.
As a result, the Office of Information Processing Technology accelerated the establishment of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET). In February 1965, a computer at Lincoln's laboratory was successfully connected to a computer from a systems development company in Santa Monica, California. On December 5, 1969, the four nodes of the ARPANET were connected, and the ARPANET was officially born, which was the predecessor of the Internet. In 1972, Robert Kahn became director of the Office of Information Processing Technology, where he conceived packet-switched networks and worked with Stanford professor Vinton Cerf to set up the original version of the ARPANET. Vinton Cerf worked at DARPA from 1973 to 1982, where he funded the advancement of TCP/IP, packet radio, packet satellite, and packet security technologies required by the military, funded the establishment of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, and served as chairman from 2000 to 2007. Stephen Crocker and others collaborated on the communication control program. In the summer of 1975, control of the ARPANET was transferred from DARPA to the Defense Communications Agency. In 1980, the U.S. Department of Defense developed TCP/IP standards for all military computer networks. In September 1984, the ARPANET was reorganized to establish a separate military network (MILNET) for U.S. military sites for unclassified Department of Defense communications, and the U.S. civilian and military networks were formally separated.
In 1985, the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded several universities to establish the US Supercomputing Center, and in 1987, on this basis, the National Science Network (NSFNET) was established, which became the backbone of the Internet of the US government and universities. On February 28, 1990, ARPANET was officially decommissioned, the commercial network rose, and the national science and technology network was no longer the backbone joint. In 1988, Klein Locke, on behalf of the National Research Network Evaluation Committee, submitted a report to the United States Congress entitled "Establishing a National Research Network", a recommendation that led to the United States High Performance Computer Act of December 9, 1991, which promoted the construction of the United States National Information Infrastructure, the "Information Highway Program". On April 30, 1995, the National Science Foundation of the United States terminated its funding for the National Science Network, and the US Internet was officially commercialized.
▍ East and West coasts, technopolitics
As mentioned earlier, the predecessor of the US Internet is the military system developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency: the ARPANET. The original four nodes of the ARPANET were located at UCLA, Stanford Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, and University of Utah, all on the west coast of the United States.
The UCLA host was the first node of the ARPANET network, led by Leonard Klein Lock, who organized a research team of 40 people. At 10:30 p.m. on October 29, 1969, UCLA established a host connection with the Stanford Research Institute, and a Klein Locke student, Charley Kline, a 21-year-old programmer who liked to program day and night, began to type login commands on the computer host keyboard, but he only typed two letters on the keyboard: LO, and the host crashed, and only recovered and successfully logged in an hour later. LO became the first message on ARPANET. In 1970, the year after the official birth of the ARPANET, the ARPANET connected the West Coast of the United States to the East Coast. In 1975, the number of networked hosts increased to 57, and in the summer of that year, control of ARPANET's operations was transferred from the Advanced Research Projects Agency to the Defense Communications Agency, which manages the U.S. and global military command and control systems, which was reorganized and renamed the U.S. Information Systems Agency after the first informationized war, the Gulf War.
In Klein Locke's research team, there are also three students who have made their names as computer scientists in the history of the American Internet, and none of them are idle: Vinton Cerf, Stephen Crock, and Jon Postle. Vinton Cerf later became a promoter of the TCP/IP protocol and a range of packet communication technologies required by the U.S. military, and the creator of ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) (ICANN). Stephen Clauck led the development of the first host-to-host protocol and co-authored a large number of Internet protocols with Vinton Cerf and others, while Postel was the de facto assigner of Internet numerical addresses from December 5, 1969, the date when the four nodes of the ARPANET were officially networked, hence the nickname "Digital Caesar" and some people called him "God of the Internet".
Nearly three decades after taking charge of the allocation of Internet numbers, including top-level domains, IP addresses, and ports, "Digital Caesar" Postel single-handedly set off a storm over the management of the Internet's root domain name, which eventually ended with his life, with the East Coast of the United States beating the West Coast. Control of the root server has completely shifted from the technical authority of the West Coast to the political authority of the East Coast. There are 13 root servers in the world, 10 in the United States. There are 10 root servers in the United States, which are A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, and L roots, 7 on the East Coast, and 1 in the hands of US government agencies on the West Coast. The 10 root servers in the United States are distributed as follows, 5 in Virginia: A primary root server at Verisign, C at PSLNeT, G at the Department of Defense Network Information Center, J at Verisign, and L at ICANN. 2 in Maryland: D Root at the University of Maryland, H Root at Army Studies. 3 in California: B Root at USC's Institute of Information Science, E Root at NASA, and F Root at the Internet Software Alliance. There are also three in Stockholm, Sweden (I root), Amsterdam in the Netherlands (K root), and Tokyo in Japan (M root).
On July 1, 1997, U.S. President Bill Clinton asked the Department of Commerce to prepare for privatizing the Internet Domain Name System (privatization is synonymous with modernization in the United States), and the next day the Commerce Department issued a draft of the Internet domain name management plan. On January 28, 1998, in order to test whether the transfer of root server management was smooth after the US government relinquished control of the domain name system, Postle, with the absolute technical authority of his "digital Caesar", set up a server in IANA in advance, and then sent an email to 12 Internet root domain name operators, asking them to reconfigure the server according to their own instructions, and remove the A root zone server from the then NSI (Network Solutions). Inc., abbreviated as NSI), the monopoly of A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET (198.41.0.4) was changed to IANA's DNSROOT.IANA.ORG (198.32.1.98), 8 non-government operators made changes according to his instructions, and 4 government operators did not follow the order. In doing so, Postel split control of the Internet's root domain between the U.S. government and non-government carriers.
This Internet root domain name management incident highlights the dispute over Internet governance between the technical authority on the west coast of the United States and the political authority on the east coast, and symbolizes that the information environment challenges the political authority of the real world with technical authority. Although Postle's right to assign Internet digital addresses is also exercised under a U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency licensing contract, this delegation is very loose and broad. Of course, the outcome was not unexpected, and the US government, upon learning of his move, immediately asked it to stop testing and return control to the network solutions company that manages the A primary root server on behalf of the government. The Clinton administration's science policy advisers also issued a threat: "You won't work on the Internet forever," and Postel eventually stopped testing and returned control of the root domain. On February 20, 1998, the Telecommunications and Information Administration of the U.S. Department of Commerce issued a green paper called: Improving the Technical Management Model of Internet Domain Name Names and Addresses, Deciding to Change the Management of the Internet DNS Root Zone and Strengthening the U.S. Government's Control over Internet Addresses and Root Zones.
On October 16, 1998, eight years after heart valve surgery, Postel died in Los Angeles due to complications from heart surgery, ending an era. With IANA gone, the emerging ICANN took its place. The rise of ICANN means that authentication rights have changed dramatically in the Internet information network, and the Internet has shifted from "ungovernable" to "governable" in the United States. In cyberspace, whoever has the right to assign Internet numbers, domain names, and addresses, that is, the ultimate authentication right of the Internet, has de facto "digital sovereignty" in the global information environment. The battle over root domain rights, which lasted for nearly a decade, ended with the U.S. government declaring political sovereignty over the Internet. In the information environment, this sovereignty is clearly unilateral and, for a long time, in fact, is the only one. In short, the United States' unipolar authentication rights to the Internet give it unilateral digital sovereignty in the information environment.
▍Unipolar certification, unilateral sovereignty
In 1969, John Robert Beyster, a former U.S. Navy officer and physicist at Westinghouse Atomic Energy and Los Alamos National Laboratory, founded an employee-owned company, Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), in San Diego, California, as a defense and intelligence contractor. SAIC mainly provides nuclear energy and nuclear impact research, information systems, national defense, national security and other related technical services to the US government. In 2012, SAIC split into two companies: SAIC and Leidos, who inherited SAIC's main business. In 2016, Leidos merged with Lockheed Martin's Information Technology Division to become the largest defense information technology service provider in the United States, with major customers being the U.S. Department of Defense, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the intelligence community, the Secretary of Defense in the Nixon administration, the Secretary of Defense and the CIA Director in the Clinton administration, and the NSA and CIA executives of the Ford, Carter and Reagan administrations, who have successively become members of its management, and the company is still one of the top ten contractors in the United States.
In 1975, in the town of Herndon in Fairfax County, Virginia, USA, Network Solutions was founded. The company's main business was to track everything people connected to the Internet through the Netscape browser at the time, and it was also a government contractor with government departments as its main customers, and this kind of enterprise known in Singapore as the government association company is ubiquitous in the United States, especially in the field of defense and government affairs. On December 31, 1992, NSI became the sole bidder for the National Science Foundation Internet Domain Name Registration Management Grant, won the exclusive grant contract of the US Science Foundation, monopolized the registration management of all non-governmental Internet generic top-level domains, was also responsible for maintaining the central domain name database WHOIS, and later subcontracted the .mil top-level domain registration management from Boeing. In May 1993, the National Science Foundation privatized the Domain Name Registry, and NSI again became the sole bidder for the privatization contract, receiving an annual grant of $5.9 million.
In March 1995, SAIC acquired NSI and was authorized by NSF to begin charging domain name registration fees of $100 per domain name, 30% of which went to NSF. In 1997, with the surge of business, NSI became SAIC's cash cow after going public, and SAIC's monopoly on NSI ownership began to attract criticism, calling on the US government to regulate the Internet, so SAIC decided to break its tail to survive: split NSI in two, abandon the registration service business, retain registration management rights, and continue to manage the core database of all domain names in the world. To alleviate social and political pressure, SAIC also conducted a five-year public relations campaign between 1995 and 2000, inviting at least half of the House and Senate members and White House cabinet officials to visit the NSI in an attempt to make it clear that the operation of the world Internet is inseparable from the NSI's 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 365 days a year, keeping the domain name system, including A primary root servers, running. In 1998, the U.S. Department of Commerce and the National Telecommunications and Information Administration authorized the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers to administer the Domain Name System, breaking the NSI's monopoly on domain name management, but technically still maintained by the NSI. In 2000, NSI was acquired by VeriSign, another U.S. government contractor, which operates two of the world's 13 root servers (A and J). Top-level domains with .com and .net, the world's leading domain name provider and key provider of domain name system infrastructure, any changes to the root zone of the Internet were initially distributed through the A-root servers operated by Verisign, and later distributed to the 13 root servers through Anycast technology through a separate distribution system designed by Verisign.
ICANN enjoys the right to allocate domain names and addresses around the world, which is still exercised under a centralized, highly centralized control model. To disguise its unilateral sovereignty, the Clinton administration mandated ICANN to develop Internet policy and undertake core technical functions such as allocating IP address resources, editing root zone documents, and coordinating the allocation of globally unique protocol numbers. Although its functions are international, the exercise of its powers is accountable to the United States Government. The United States is the sole regulator of this authority, and any changes to the IANA root zone document must be reviewed and approved by the U.S. Department of Commerce. The U.S. Department of Commerce signed a joint project agreement with ICANN to establish a list of policy development tasks that it must follow, with clear visions and milestones that reflect U.S. interests. The U.S. Department of Commerce has also contracted Verisign Corporation to implement ICANN's Technical Coordination Policy and to comply with the clear instructions of the U.S. Root Zone document.
This means that the U.S. government enjoys overall policy authority over ICANN's root zone. In October 1998, around the same time as Postle's death, the U.S. Department of Commerce declared that it had this power. Any modification, addition, deletion of root zone documents requires the written permission of the U.S. federal government. After 9/11, the George W. Bush administration announced on June 30, 2005, that the U.S. government had permanent power, and that other countries could only serve as unpowered advisers to ICANN's Governmental Advisory Committee.
Therefore, the global governance of the Internet is essentially a unilateral governance, which continues the new indirect rule model of the new American empire different from the old British empire. As a global empire, the United States has implemented a public-private partnership model at the technical, educational, financial, cultural and even legal levels: individuals or companies undertake, government departments provide financial or policy support, and have "golden stocks" with supervision and control. The United States has been able to establish this unilateral global governance system precisely because of its leading position in information technology and its position as the center of global Internet connectivity. Technological leadership underpins its unilateral digital sovereignty and even digital hegemony. In 2004, the United States terminated Libya's top-level domains due to a dispute with Libya over the management of top-level domains. LY's parsing service caused Libya to disappear from the network for 3 days. Also that year, the NSA began preparing for a "virtual border" to track all visitors to the United States. These practices highlight the dual nature of the Internet as both the international network of the United States and the national network of the United States.
Countries around the world do not buy the unilateral global governance enjoyed by the United States and its unilateral sovereignty in the information environment. Since 2002, in order to share international stewardship of the Internet with the United States, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has hoped and finally obtained the mandate of the United Nations to convene the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), divided into two phases, Geneva and Tunis, which lasted from 2002 to 2005. At the summit, developing countries want to challenge the unilateral rule of the United States, while the European Union wants more international regulation of the Internet in the United States. But neither the Geneva nor the Tunis summits ultimately produced any challenge to U.S. unilateral sovereignty, and the agreements reached became more of a dead letter, and U.S. unilateral rule continued until 2015.
With the outbreak of the "Snowden incident" in 2013, the purpose and ability of the US National Security Agency to monitor the global "collect everything" was revealed to the world, causing public indignation around the world. Snowden eventually fled to Russia via Hong Kong, where he officially obtained Russian citizenship in September 2022 during Russia's ongoing conflict with Ukraine. In the face of international outrage, the discredited US government was forced to announce in 2015 that it had fulfilled its long-held commitment to formally transfer the right to assign and control of Internet domain names and numerical addresses to ICANN. But in fact, ICANN's authority has not been separated from the U.S. government's oversight to this day, and the operation and management of the primary root server of Internet A, and its distribution control over the 12 root servers, are only subcontracted by ICANN to Verisign, the U.S. government information technology contractor, which continues to serve as the root zone maintainer. The unilateral sovereignty of the United States has not been substantially touched.
▍ The Internet of the Internet, the textile world
Under the unilateral rule of the United States, all countries in the world enjoy the right to make Internet policy within their own territorial boundaries, including the right to manage, regulate and govern Internet service providers, Internet content providers and Internet users. For the most important and core Internet domain name and number address allocation rights, countries are still unable to intervene, and the role of Internet international organizations is often limited to Internet community rule-making. Therefore, the governance pattern of the global Internet, in essence and in fact, is still a "unilateral sovereignty, hierarchical division" model, that is, unilateral governance of the United States, limited autonomy of countries and community self-discipline of international organizations, the United States still dominates the code layer, physical layer, search layer, application layer, and the role of countries and international organizations around the world is often limited to the content layer. This also shows that focusing solely on the content layer is not enough.
This is because the Internet is a kind of world weaving. In the era of nuclear deterrence strategic confrontation with mutually assured destruction, as the cradle of the US Internet, the "Lincoln Project" can be said to be a by-product of the "Manhattan Project", both of which are system engineering covering various scientific disciplines, nuclear weapons and the Internet are two sides of the same coin, from the military, government and academic networks built during the Cold War to the civilian, commercial and international networks after the end of the Cold War, the United States is the forerunner. But as the other side of the strategic confrontation of nuclear deterrence, the Soviet Union was not inactive. As early as 1956, the idea of establishing a computer network for dual-use countries also appeared in the Soviet Union. In 1962, Soviet scientist Victor Mikhailovich Glushkov (1923–1982) proposed the idea of a national automation system, planning to establish a national computer network on the telephone line, with the Moscow Central Computer as the center, connecting 200 intermediate computer centers distributed in major cities, which in turn interconnected with computers in 20,000 key production places of the national economy, so as to realize the national accounts of the Soviet Union. Planning and managing the collection and processing of information. In hindsight, Glushkov's team proposed many computer theories different from those in the United States, such as "macro pipe processing technology" that promises to break through the so-called von Neumann bottleneck, automata, paperless office, and natural language programming that allows humans to communicate semantically with computers, and even proposed a theory of "information immortality" similar to "thought upload". On October 1, 1970, nearly a year after the birth of the American ARPANET, Glushkov hoped to sell his utopian plan of an electronic socialist network to the highest levels of the Soviet Union, but this shelving only delayed the emergence of the Soviet state computer network ten years later than in the United States. With the end of the Cold War, the Internet in the United States became the Internet of the world, but the Soviet Union's Internet technology base was obviously the strength for Russia to build a "sovereign Internet". As the United States increasingly views Russia and China as its long-term strategic competitors and countries such as Iran as so-called "regional hegemony" that does not submit to its global dominance, countries such as Russia have begun to seek to establish a "sovereign Internet" or hope to control the authentication power of Internet information cyberspace more within territorial boundaries.
In the historical process we are witnessing, the great power competition around network security and world power is implemented in the physical layer built by core technologies and key technologies such as chips. The physical layer has become the main battlefield of great power competition on the high-tech frontier, which to a large extent reverses the order and inter-layer relationship of different levels of the information environment for a long time, leads the world through advanced technology, spins the world through information technology, defines the world through the textile world, and becomes a key step to defend virtual sovereignty and construct the information spirit.
It can be said that whoever can weave the world can construct the information spirit. The Yinhe incident at the turn of the summer and autumn of 1993 accelerated the process of China's informatization, from military network, government affairs network, academic network to commercial network, civilian network, and international network, between development, governance and security, China created an information environment belonging to all Chinese, and is working hard to construct it into an information spiritual realm. Another direct product of the "Yinhe incident" is also a necessary part of the information spirit, and even a vital link, that is, China's global satellite navigation system. China's global satellite navigation system, called "China Beidou". "China Beidou" took three steps, the first step was to start development in 1994, to serve China's Beidou No. 1 at the end of 2000, the second step was to serve the Asia-Pacific Beidou II in 2012, and the third step was to face the world in 2020. From having the world in mind to standing up for oneself, from looking up at the starry sky to longitude and latitude time and space, China's Beidou has become the world's Beidou.
In the era where everything can be informationized, the future of China's spiritual realm is promising. If it is more in line with Chinese's pursuit and yearning for a better society, it is possible to create an information spiritual realm that belongs to Chinese. Chinese demand, production, and use of more than billions of information, can give full play to the networked and information-based productivity of the information technology revolution. In this sense, it is indeed necessary to come up with its own ideas for the information spirit. In the information environment, China is the first 100-million-level and the first billion-level civilization of human society. For such a billion-level civilization, the information spirit is not a more rational Soviet-style electronic planned economy, nor is it a laissez-faire "finance for everyone, leeks for everyone", but a beautiful society that people yearn for and pursue. In such an information spirit, everyone has the distributed self-propagation ability to produce, select, disseminate and receive information, make clothing, food, housing and transportation more convenient, production and circulation more efficient, distribution and consumption more fair, personal information more secure, commercial data use more reasonable, public data more open, information push more active, public services more convenient, crime identification more rapid, health information more interconnected, first aid positioning more accurate, emergency communication more timely. In short, in the information spirit, livelihoods are more reliable, life is more comfortable, life is more open, mobility is freer, development is safer, governance is more reasonable, and sovereignty is more stable.
Facing the future, the modern mission of China, a civilizational country with a long history, is precisely to transform the physical layer and textile the world by improving the global information infrastructure construction capacity, provide more global information public goods, eliminate the global internal and external unevenness, north-south asymmetry, and east-west imbalance information gap, break through the unilateral sovereignty of the United States in the information environment, tame the technological giants, create an information spiritual realm that belongs to both China and the world, and then under the premise of defending the spiritual realm sovereignty belonging to Chinese. Explore the multiple possibilities of redefining the world and make it serve the pursuit and yearning of human society for a better life.
(The author of this article is Ou Shujun, a member of the School of International Relations of Chinese Minmin University. This article is excerpted from Ou Shujun's new book "Inside and Outside the Spirit: A Brief History of Internet Governance", originally titled "The Struggle for the Digital Frontier of Human Society: The Historical Origins of Internet Governance". Welcome to follow the NPC Chongyang Sina Weibo: @人大重阳 ; WeChat public account: rdcy2013)