Text | Zhang Qingfeng
Editor|Zhang Qingfeng
The infamous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest is widely regarded as an event that stopped the expansion of the Roman Empire.
Although the battle had a profound effect, holding back the Romans on the west bank of the Rhine, it was not the first defeat of the Roman army, nor was it the first time Roman expansion stopped.
Twenty years before Varus's legions disappeared into the dense forests of Germania, Rome's military might was tested in the deserts of Nubia, and a combination of pride and paranoia weakened Rome's frontiers against newly annexed Egypt and humiliated Emperor Augustus by allowing the warlike Kush kingdom to take revenge on the vengeful queen against the Roman army.
While the Romans did their best to regain control, fierce resistance from the Kushi forced the emperor to abandon his war efforts and offer generous peace terms.
As a result of this forgotten conflict, the Romans never ventured deep into Africa, establishing a permanent southern border that would not change until the end of Roman rule.
Roman army in Egypt before the war with the Kush Kingdom
In 30 BC, the year of Axing's victory after him, Octavian led an army to Egypt.
Cleopatra's suicide ended the Ptolemaic dynasty, leaving the vacant throne, however, Octavian rejected the crown. Instead, he made Egypt a province of Rome.
Three years later, Octavian was named Augustus, and Egypt and its immense wealth became the private property of the emperor.
To protect his "crown jewel", Augustus stationed three armies in Egypt, whose main task was to maintain internal peace and patrol the southern border.
We know the names of two legions: the Cyrenaica Legion and the Imperial Legion, and the third name has been lost to history.
In total, in 30 BC, Rome had about 15,000 soldiers in the province, most of whom were stationed near the old capital of Thebes, on the Mediterranean coast near Alexandria, and in the event of an enemy attack, these troops would march south to provide assistance to the border guards.
The danger of ambition
Determined to prevent another civil war, Augustus had a monopoly on control of the imperial army, and all legions were now directly under the orders of their commander-in-chief, the emperor.
However, due to Egypt's great importance to the empire's economy and its strategic position, Augustus appointed his close supporter Gaius Cornelius Galus as the first governor of Roman Aeguptos.
Unlike other governors, he was also given personal command of the three legions, and before Galus could settle down, a rebellion broke out in the south near Sini (present-day Aswan).
We should not forget the fact that Egypt has just undergone regime change, and not every Egyptian likes their new master.
However, Galus was not only successful, after suppressing the uprising, he continued to advance south, crossing the first waterfall and capturing the fortress of Philae Island in Lower Nubia (north).
To celebrate his achievements, Gallus erected a monument in Philae, however, he did not stop there.
According to the historian Cassis, the proud governor continued to build monuments throughout Egypt in his honor, even inscribed on the top of the pyramids.
Unsurprisingly, the emperor was not happy with this, and he saw Gallus as a potential threat. To make matters worse, Galus was a learned man, a poet who enjoyed a high reputation among the Roman elite.
As a result of the personal tragedy of Egypt's first Roman governor, shame, deprivation of his wealth, and threat to his life, Galus committed suicide.
Unwilling to take the risk, Augustus appointed a smoother and less ambitious man to fill the vacancy.
Unlike his predecessors, Alyus' first military command was an expedition to Arabia Felix in 25 BC, which was a complete failure. To make matters worse, many soldiers stationed in Egypt were transferred to the expeditionary force, leaving the southern border exposed to hostile attacks.
Warriors of the South
Among his many achievements, the ill-fated Cornelius Galus referred to the homage of the Mereuth ambassadors, who visited him during the governor's stay in Philae, and according to the triumphal inscription the Kingdom of Kusht became a vassal state of Rome.
However, not everyone agreed, and perhaps Galus was lucky enough not to live to see his victory turn into a catastrophe - the Roman victory caused trouble in the south, provoking the wrath of the proud and brave warriors.
Long before the Romans conquered a series of impenetrable rapids, it became known as the First Waterfall of the Nile, demarcating the border between Egypt in the north and Nubia in the south.
Although Nubia is not as fertile as its northern neighbor, it is a land rich in resources such as gold, ivory, ebony, and incense. The area was inhabited by a dark-skinned, tall Kushi who gradually adopted their culture through frequent contact with the ancient Egyptians.
They worshiped Egyptian gods and followed Egyptian funeral practices to build majestic pyramids for the afterlife of their royalty. King Kush even managed to seize the throne of Egypt and rule as the official 25th dynasty.
Although the northern armies, from the soldiers of the pharaohs to the Persians, were able to conquer parts of Nubia, this was only a temporary gain. The loss of the notorious desert-swallowed Gambises army shows the value of the desert fringes and its role in keeping the heart of Kuhite out of the reach of the enemy.
If an enemy manages to overcome nature, he must face these terrible warriors. The Kush, known for their strength and archery under the leadership of kings and queens, were called formidable opponents by the Romans.
Humiliate an empire
Like previous rulers of Egypt, the Romans fantasized about Nubian gold and other riches of Africa.
After the capture of Philae, it seemed that these dreams would soon come true, however, the Romans grossly miscalculated.
Before embarking on his ill-fated Arab expedition, Alius taxed areas considered part of the Kush kingdom.
According to Strebo, the main source of the conflict was that the act angered the leader of the Kushi people, Queen Armanirinas, whom Strabo called "Kandakh", which we are not sure refers to "Queen Mother" or "Ruler".
We know that Amarias was a fearsome leader, the brave queen who fought back against the Romans and humiliated an empire.
In 24 BC, taking advantage of the empty defense of the army, the queen led her army north to the first waterfall, and the Cusch army soon occupied the Roman fortress of Philae, entered the imperial territory, and advanced to Segne and the elephant.
They then retreated south with trophies, Roman prisoners and thousands of Egyptian prisoners, and as a final insult, the Kush cut off and took away the head of the statue of Augustus.
In 1910, the bronze head of the emperor was found buried under the steps of the Temple of Amun in Mero, the capital of the Kush kingdom, a site carefully chosen to ensure that everyone who entered the building trampled on the image of Emperor Augustus – a testament to the victory of the Kush over the Roman monarchy.
The Empire Strikes Back
This humiliation could not be tolerated, and Rome had to respond, and the new governor, Petronius, gathered an army of more than 10,000 men and marched south into Nubia.
The two armies met near Pursey, 100 km (62 mi) south of First Falls. Although the enemy army was almost three to one of the Romans, the more well-armored and disciplined legions won the battle.
Petronius continued to advance south, into the desert, however, as the army marched along the banks of the Nile, their advance was hampered by huge sand dunes, and between two large waterfalls, the Romans occupied the town of Premnis.
Finally, the Roman army reached Napata, the former capital of the Kush kingdom, and the Romans rejected Armanirinas' offer for peace, razing the city to the ground and enslaving hundreds of residents.
However, unknown terrain, scorching heat and the danger of plague prevented Petronius from continuing his advance in this hostile territory, and instead decided to turn back, believing that the destruction of the enemy's capital was a sufficient punishment for those who dared to challenge Roman power.
On the way, Petronius left a small Roman garrison at Premnis that extended the Roman border to Lower Nubia, and when he returned to Alexander Petronius to send the spoils of war and thousands of prisoners of war to Rome, the empire restored its honor.
However, Petronius was wrong. The success of the punitive Roman expedition frightened the local tribes, who allied themselves with the vengeful queen to strengthen her army, and Amarinas, rekindled the fight, leading her soldiers north.
She besieged the Roman fortress of Plemnis, but failed to capture it, determined to defeat Kush once and for all, and Petronius marched south again.
The exact details are unknown, but by 21 BC both armies were exhausted, and when Amanilas offered peace, Petronius accepted, perhaps taking into account the fate of Galus, the governor advised the envoys to present their situation directly to the emperor.
Victory of the Kingdom of Kush: The Roman army was humbled
At that time, Augustus was on the Greek island of Samos, busy making peace with the Parthian Empire.
The emperor's undivided focus on Rome's formidable eastern rival, Parthia, helps explain why Augustus granted both of Armanirinas' demands, including the withdrawal of all Roman troops from the disputed territory of Nubia, and the same explains why Augustus voluntarily withdrew the tribute previously imposed on Kush.
The distant African kingdom was a minor nuisance compared to neighboring Parthia, which had recently wiped out a Roman army led by Il-Fath, Crassus.
In addition, the southern border was peacefully stabilized, allowing Augustus to transfer the legions elsewhere, while the Kush regained their status as a regional power.
Both sides profited, the Romans imposed generous tariffs, and the Kush kingdom received a steady source of income.
Favorable alliances aside, the fact remains that fierce resistance from the one-eyed queen Amanilas and her people had thwarted the Roman army, halted Roman expansion, and as the Roman army retreated, the Kushi symbolically overthrew and beheaded the statue of the emperor in the recovered town.
Rome also continued to plan new offensives. Half a century after Augustus' death, his great-great-grandson Nero sent a small expedition deep into the heart of Africa.
Officially, its mission was to discover the source of the Nile, and it seemed that the mission had a more nefarious purpose, and the Janissaries, led by an elite military force, recorded their voyages in detail, including a description of the capital of Kuhit, Majal.
The migration of military units to Egypt further suggests that Nero planned a full-scale military campaign, however the suicide of the emperor and the bloody civil war that followed, put these plans on hold forever.
Roman armies would never again enter Nubia, and the kings and queens of Kush would never again have to cede land, transport resources, or pay tribute to Rome.
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