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1. The strengthening of royal power during the Tudor period
From 1455 to 1485, the House of York and the House of Lancaster fought a war in England, which exhausted the two families and dealt a serious blow to the local aristocracy. While the war left people with a ruined economy and endless disasters, it also brought about great changes in British society.
The War of the Red and White Roses wiped out the military aristocracy of the British feudal territories and established an excellent environment for the development of the later Tudor dynasty. Coupled with the economic development of the city, the emerging bourgeoisie united with the king, struck at various forces, and promoted the continuous strengthening of royal power.
1. The political manifestation of the strengthening of royal power
On the political front, the King controls the executive power of the country through the Privy Council. The Privy Council consisted of the king's close associates and confidants, was efficient and loyal, and was accountable only to the king.
Although on some issues the Privy Council disapproved of the King's actions, it ultimately obeyed the King's will. Subsequently, in order to facilitate administration below the county, power was concentrated in the hands of small parish councils.
This kind of move also reflects the authoritarian tendency from the central to the local level.
In the field of justice, the strengthening of royal power is also prominent. The king often used these privileged courts to seize the power to decide cases and make judgments in favor of the king's personal interests under the pretext that "the circumstances of the case were special" or "there was no precedent to follow".
In addition, the Severe Torture Act became an important magic weapon for the king to maintain social stability. During the Reformation, Henry VIII used criminal laws such as burning at the stake and amputation to attack Catholics and strengthen the authority of Anglicanism.
2. The manifestation of the strengthening of royal power in the economy
Britain in the 15th and 16th centuries was in a period of social transformation, and in the face of the economic and social changes in this transitional period, the British king strengthened his control over the economy.
On the one hand, the British king, with his absolute power in handling national security affairs, controlled wartime tax policy, controlled the country's financial power, and promoted the strengthening and concentration of monarchical power.
On the other hand, Tudor monarchs practiced mercantilist policies to encourage and support the development of shipping and shipbuilding and protect their commercial interests, and British capitalism developed rapidly during this period, accelerating the disintegration of the feudal economy.
In addition, mercantilist policies had a huge impact on agriculture. Under the influence of the British mercantilist policy, the British wool textile industry developed rapidly, and the demand for wool in the domestic and foreign markets continued to increase, making the price of wool increase day by day, promoting many nobles and squires to occupy the farmer's land to develop sheep pastures, and promote the reform of rural land ownership in Britain.
In the mid-to-late 16th century, British merchants sought a world market for the woolen industry to kick off British overseas expansion, and the Tudor government integrated Tudor's economy into the world economy.
3. The religious manifestation of the strengthening of royal power
During the Tudor period, "sovereignty is king" was clearly put forward to oppose the medieval concept of "sovereignty in God".
In order to gain complete sovereignty, "the state must also control religion, otherwise it cannot control the whole country, which is the true historical meaning of Henry VIII's Reformation".
In 1529, Parliament forbade the Church to levy taxes at will, breaking the dictatorial posture of the Catholic Church. Subsequently, in the divorce case of Henry VIII, the Parliament enacted the Anti-Appeal Act, which made it clear that the Archbishop of Canterbury or the Court of the Archbishop of York could not bring cases relating to inheritance and marriage to the Papal Court.
This effectively abolished the papal right to interfere in the internal affairs of England, leaving the British to handle their own internal affairs. In 1534, Parliament declared that the king was the greatest and that disobedience to the king's rights was punishable by death.
In 1547, the Protestant Edward VI succeeded to the throne, and during his reign he adopted a more moderate way to further promote the Anglican faith: the clergy were required to use Kramer's Book of Common Prayer in religious ceremonies, which stipulated new religious ceremonies, doctrines, canons, etc., which also helped to unite the national consciousness.
After the death of Edward VI, the Catholic Bloody Mary sat on the throne through war, and after coming to power, she persecuted Protestants and enacted various measures in an attempt to restore the dominance of Catholicism in England. But by then the Anglican ideology was relatively solid, so Mary's idea did not go as she had hoped.
Later, Elizabeth I took the throne and issued many measures to revise and consolidate the achievements of the English Reformation, and in 1573, the Thirty-Nine Articles of Faith were adopted, which further improved the Anglican doctrine.
This tumultuous Reformation movement ended in a victory for the Church of England, which not only dealt a heavy blow to Roman Catholic authority but also transformed the role of the king.
The king was both a secular and a religious leader, wielding religious power and promoting the strengthening of royal power.
Strengthening of royal power
In terms of cultural expression, after Henry VII ended civil strife and stabilized the political situation, the spring breeze of the Renaissance blew further into England.
At this time, the rise of "new scholarship", that is, the humanist trend of thought, which emphasized human values, human dignity, advocated the pursuit of happiness, and freedom from shackles, these ideological changes had a huge impact on British culture.
Tudor drama was the literary mainstream of the English Renaissance. The famous representative Shakespeare, whose works are still the masterpieces of theatrical performances to this day.
The poetry and prose of this period were also dazzling, and many outstanding writers, such as Edmund Spencer, Mussel Daniel, Francis Bacon, etc., produced many excellent works, which have survived to this day.
At the same time, political thought and philosophy have also reached a new level, and outstanding thinkers and philosophers continue to emerge, and their new ideas and new works have had a profound impact on British society.
For example, Thomas More's "Utopia", Charlie Hooke's "On the Laws of the Church System" and other works. The rich and colorful artistic activities and the new historiography that went out of tradition also highlighted the splendid culture of Britain, and the prosperity of culture could not be separated from the support of the royal power, and the king's reward for literature and art and the relaxed creative environment have greatly promoted the development of British culture.
After 118 years and 5 generations of monarchs, the Tudor dynasty was the golden age of the development of the British feudal monarchy, and the peak of the reign of King Elizabeth.
In 1603, she died, which marked the end of the glorious Tudor era. More than a hundred years of absolute feudal monarchy was one of the most important events in British history, and the political, economic and cultural changes taken by Elizabeth I to consolidate the royal power inevitably had an impact on university education.
The royal power increased its control and intervention in universities
After Henry VII ushered in the Tudor era, he worked for a long time to restore the absolute monarchy, enacting various measures to prevent Yorkists from conspiring behind their backs.
In religious affairs, peaceful coexistence with the Church was adopted to further maintain political power, so the jurisdiction of the university at this time remained in the hands of the Church.
"After Henry VIII's Reformation, the royal power replaced the church power as the jurisdiction of the university", and took various measures to strengthen the control and intervention of the university, the more typical aspects are the following.
- The King issued a charter
Universities were granted various privileges in the Middle Ages, and from the day of their birth, universities were protected by the Church. Through the issuance of the relevant charters and licenses, the Holy See grants various privileges to the University and guarantees that its interests are not infringed.
The church also continued to issue documents and charters to provide tangible benefits for the development of the university, such as halving housing, the right to strike, the right to move, etc. The protection of the royal power has promoted the further healthy growth of the university.
During the reign of King Henry III, the importance of the university became increasingly prominent, and the king also strengthened the jurisdiction of the university president several times.
For example, university presidents have the power to deal with debts and contracts of students and citizens, and to judge and punish citizens. At the same time, Henry III also granted university faculty broad judicial powers and food supervision powers.
In 1319, King Henry II of England gave certain university professors the right to bear arms. The feudal monarchs not only largely recognized the privileges previously granted to the university by the church, such as the right of residence, judicial autonomy, and the right to strike, but also gained new privileges under the struggle between church power and royal power.
For example, a royal charter issued in 1534 granted the University of Cambridge the right three printers to print and publish the books it had agreed to authorize.
The royal family also affirmed certain privileges enjoyed by teachers, such as the right to freedom of residence, uninterrupted life and teaching order, and even the right to tax exemption.
The various privileges and charters granted by the royal family have promoted the free development of university education and are more conducive to the vitality of academic thought in a relaxed environment.
But the excessive privileges also displeased some citizens, sparking riots to limit the university's powers.
2. Royal Inspectorate University
During the Tudor period, the divorce of King Henry VIII of England triggered the English Reformation, which had a huge impact on British society. In education, the King gradually replaced the Pope as the regulator of education, especially tightening his control over university education.
From Henry VIII onwards, successive Tudor monarchs personally or established inspection committees to inspect the university. Under Henry VIII, a royal commission was formed to inspect universities, aiming to eliminate Roman Catholic control over university education and to issue new regulations to strengthen control over universities.
During the inspections, it was stipulated that the writings of scholastic philosophers were forbidden to be studied, and that universities were supervised to offer lectures in Greek and Hebrew. During the reign of King Edward VI, there was a crisis at Oxford University and the university administration was in chaos.
Edward VI personally toured the University of Oxford and appointed a committee to rectify the teaching content and electoral charter of the University, the main purpose of which was to supervise the continued loyalty of the Oxford faculty and students to the royal power.
The main purpose of the tour during Bloody Mary's reign was to restore the old religious rites and Catholic authority and crack down on heretics.
During his tour of Cambridge University, he issued a decree to restore Catholic ceremonies, "collecting and publicly burning the English Bible, removing other heretical works from libraries, and prohibiting scholars from privately storing them."
During the reign of Elizabeth I, she further tightened her control over the university, not only by organizing royal commissions to tour the university, but also in 1564 and 1566 to personally tour the University of Cambridge and the University of Oxford to attend lectures, performances and other college activities.
In addition, during the tour, Elizabeth I also evaluated and required the university style, curriculum, and even dress. The Tudor royal inspectorate not only served the role of inspector, but its actions also enhanced the University's standing in the dynasty, while preserving the autonomy and privileges that the University had long enjoyed.
3. Royalty finances control of the university
During the Tudor period, feudal monarchs not only controlled university education through privileges, patrols, etc., but also had financial support to ensure that they served the royal rule.
Henry VII's mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, donated a professorship to Cambridge University and the establishment of Christ's College, St. John's College.
After King Henry VIII launched the Reformation, he ordered the closure of the monastery and the confiscation of church property.
In 1546, Henry VIII funded part of the confiscated property to the University of Oxford, re-established Christ Church College and the seminary in Cambridge, and established five new professorships in Greek, Hebrew, theology, medicine, and civil law.
Queen Bloody Mary is more aware of the role of money in universities. In 1554, Mary provided the university with funds for the restoration of public schools, the main purpose of which was to win the university over as a frontline for the restoration of Catholicism.
Oxford University, lured by money, became an important helper for Mary's restoration of Catholicism.
In fact, successive Tudor royal families have provided funds to the university to ensure the basic operation of the university.
Of course, in addition to helping universities rebuild or build new colleges and continuously improve their infrastructure, the main purpose is to make universities stand on the side of and serve the royal power.
To train reliable personnel for the government, as well as to provide public opinion favorable to the secular royal power and the emerging bourgeoisie.
4. The interference of royal power in the internal affairs of the university
The training of talents was one of the main functions of the university, and the main goal of the medieval university was to train the clergy.
After the English Reformation, the royal power controlled the university, requiring the university to train knowledgeable and talented people to serve the government and society, thus constantly interfering in the internal affairs of the university.
With the influence of the Renaissance and the Reformation, the curriculum of British universities was more influenced by secular politics, and the teaching content was closely linked to social needs and scientific development.
Henry VIII appointed Thomas Krenkel to reform the university curriculum, which led to major changes in the British university curriculum.
Henry VIII demanded the use of the Bible as a teaching material and abolished contrary to traditional practices, and the teaching of canon law and the awarding of corresponding degrees in universities were prohibited.
In 1565, King Elizabeth I issued the Elizabeth Act, which detailed the debate, reading list, course content and degree awarding of universities.
In addition, the royal family also actively controls the finances of the university, and the income of the college is protected by the royal family. The Crown enacted the Corn Laws to guarantee the basic income of the College; The Crown holds the right to audit the finances of the College and prevent corruption among the staff; Universities are exempt from taxation.
At the same time, the royal power controls the management of the university at all levels, interferes in the internal elections of the university, and appoints the president of the university and other important administrators. And put forward strict requirements for teachers, if you want to become a university teacher, in addition to good conduct, moral accomplishment, you also need to pass the examination to obtain a practice license.
Under Elizabeth I, teachers had to swear allegiance to the crown and seriously implement the Thirty-Nine Principles. In addition to the above, the king also issued a decree to promote a series of new regulations for universities.
For example, in 1581, the Oxford University Decree stipulated: "Every university student over the age of 16 must take an oath to the Thirty-Nine Articles of Faith and the Supreme Act, and the tutor must distance himself from the Roman Catholic Church, otherwise no admissions will be allowed."
This was intended to consolidate royal rule and make universities loyal to it. However, some of the interventions of the royal power have not achieved good results, some policies have low operational value, it is impossible to change people's beliefs through oaths alone, and some policies themselves are not well implemented.
Several Tudor monarchs since Henry VIII intervened and supervised the University, changing the past when the University was independently controlled by the Church.
University jurisdiction fell into the hands of the royal power, and with the protection and support of the royal power, the Tudor period of university education continued to develop well.