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preface
Because of its unique geographical location, Constantinople became the largest and most prosperous city in Europe from the middle of the 4th century to the early 13th century. It is located at the westernmost point of the Silk Road, through which all kinds of goods and cultures from the East were transmitted to Western countries, so it also has the reputation of "Eurasian Trade Golden Bridge".
In the 7th century, the Islamic world began to rise, and the center of Eurasian economic trade began to shift to Baghdad in the east. By the 10th century, the regional trade center at the western end of the Silk Roads began to shift to Constantinople. Goods from all over the world began to converge here, and regional trade networks began to extend to the periphery.
I. Urban Development and Construction of Constantinople
The development of the Silk Road trade contributed to the economic prosperity of Constantinople, and the income level of the inhabitants was greatly improved. In the 7th century, the annual salary of the highest officials of the Byzantine Empire was only a few hundred gold, and the annual salary of ordinary officials was only between 3.5 and 72 gold coins.
However, by the 10th century, even ordinary cooks and domestic servants had an annual salary of 10 gold coins. The sharp increase in income has also greatly increased the purchasing power of residents, and luxury goods that were originally only available to the upper classes of society have begun to enter the homes of ordinary people.
The increase in demand for commodities further contributed to the prosperity of the market, and more and more goods began to enter Constantinople, thus forming a virtuous circle of commodity trade.
The number of goods traded in Constantinople was numerous and varied. Although Constantinople did not regulate the sale of these goods much, it still required a little about their prices and set a special profit margin.
The Book of Officials, a legal text issued in 912 AD, contains many details about the economic development of Constantinople during this period, so it is also used as a reference for examining the commerce of the city in the Middle Ages.
In this legal text, roughly 22 types of business actions are regulated. In addition to being distributed among the city's main roads, these commercial activities are also clustered in various squares. The Official Book records two key commercial areas, the peripheral meat and food markets and the luxury markets in Constantine's square.
The love for oriental silk also reached a new climax during this period, and silk also became a symbol of status. According to records, in the court, all classes wore silk of different colors and patterns, and silk became a symbol of status.
After the introduction of the silk industry, it also continued to develop and become one of the most important industries. The silk industry began to rank among the valuables, even equivalent to gold, and strict controls began from production to sales. Although the growth of silkworms was extremely demanding in the environment, the wealthy people of Constantinople produced silk in their own homes that could be used for personal use.
Constantinople has a large population, so the food industry is also a very important industry. In order to provide a large amount of dietary needs, in addition to some imported grain, the wheat fields and orchards inside and outside the city walls were also the pillar industry of Constantinople.
Because the demand is very large, which can ensure that merchants continue to transport grain to the city, the grain market is relatively active and well-functioning.
Moreover, there were many grain reserves in Constantinople, and many grains were stored in the warehouses of monasteries and churches, and from there they were sold to the people. The large landowners who lived in Constantinople also had their own production, so their food supply did not depend on the market.
With an adequate food supply, food prices in Constantinople were stable in the 10th and 11th centuries. Prices fluctuate only when disasters occur. There is much information about meat in the Official Book, but little information about bakeries.
There is a saying that there is a central warehouse dedicated to storing grain, and bakers go to this warehouse to buy grain. Although the location of the bakery is not specified in the Official Book, it is indicated that bakers need to grind their own grain, bake bread, and not leave ovens under houses.
Contents related to olive oil and wine can also be found in the Official Book. Olive oil is sold in grocery stores throughout the city, and there are no specific regulations on processing or importing.
At the end of the 9th century, the price of olive oil in Constantinople was set at one copper coin per liter. The wine is sold by the innkeeper and can be sold in a fixed volume of 30 or 3 liters, in addition to a single glass.
The trade of the Silk Road also led to the construction of the city of Constantinople, which was completely carried out according to the layout and structure of the city of Rome at the beginning of its construction, divided into 7 districts and 14 administrative regions. Each region has different functions, but the infrastructure is perfect.
Streets, squares, churches, etc. are scattered throughout the city. Culture also flourished along with the Silk Road trade, because Constantinople's unique geographical location not only allowed it to be economically facilitated by east-west, north-south commercial trade, but also promoted exchanges between local cultures to a certain extent.
In the mid-9th century, the University of Constantinople was founded and soon became the most influential institution in the Near East. Moreover, the leader Constantine VII was also very supportive of academic and various cultural activities, which attracted a large number of scholars and indirectly promoted the "Macedonian cultural revival".
In this environment, a large number of libraries were established. In the seventh era of Constantine, it was also decreed that the library in the law school of Constantinople should contain all the books useful and necessary for the teaching of law, and a religious librarian should be in charge of the relevant affairs.
Constantinople's cultural boom attracted people from all over Europe, and at the time it was called the richest city in the world, saying it held two-thirds of the world's wealth.
Status of the regional trade network of Constantinople
Constantinople, as a regional trade center, long before the establishment of the Arab Empire, made Arabs who were engaged in the north-south movement of oriental goods yearning. After the establishment of the Arab Empire, Constantinople was repeatedly surrounded by Muslims.
In order to facilitate Muslim trade and visitors, a mosque was built in the castle of Constantinople, and Muslim merchants would sell goods to the guild of Constantinople, and would consciously pay import and export taxes.
However, the government of Constantinople also had some precautions against these Muslim merchants, not only were they not allowed to go in and out at will, but they also needed to report to the authorities when entering and leaving the city, and the hotels where they could live were also distinguished from the locals, and stipulated that these people could not stay in the city for more than 3 months.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, key sections of the Silk Road were controlled by the Khazarian Khanate, but with the migration of nomads from the East, the state of Kievan Rus was gradually established.
At this time, the role of the Khazarian Khanate as a barrier against nomads was weakened and gradually replaced by the Rus, and Kiev began to become an important hub in the northern passages, while the regional trade center of the Silk Road at the western end of Eurasia began to move westward to Constantinople.
Constantinople, as an important hub on the Silk Road, was attractive to the Rus. In 911 , the two sides agreed to allow the Rus to establish a commercial district on the outskirts of Constantinople.
In 944, the number of Rus caravans and the trade process were strictly regulated. In 957, the Rus rulers came to Constantinople for a visit, and Constantine VII gave him a warm welcome.
The Rus were also very enthusiastic about the silk produced in Constantinople, but their purchase was too large, so Constantinople also made a relevant rule, when the Rus bought silk, customs officials had to seize it, but this rule was not enforced.
In addition to these two regions, Constantinople also had close trade with the commercial cities of Italy. Italy was under Byzantine rule for a long time, and although some areas later fell away, some ports were still in Byzantine hands.
In the 10th century, Byzantium had its own maritime caravan in the Italian capital, making Amalfi one of the most developed ports in the Mediterranean.
After that, the main Italian cities began to set up consulates in Constantinople, and the officials of the consulates assumed guardianship of their inhabitants with the consent of the imperial authorities.
Later, Venice also gained the right to establish a commercial district in Constantinople, impose some customs duties, and have free access to important seaports of the Byzantine Empire, such as Corinth.
The continued decline of Constantinople brought new opportunities to the Italian city-states. By the 11th and 12th centuries, Constantinople had begun to gradually lose control of the eastern Mediterranean, giving Italian cities more opportunities to control trade routes to the East.
Constantinople and China also had close trade and cultural exchanges, and since the Sui and Tang dynasties, China has been unified domestically, control of the western region has been strengthened, and the Silk Road has ushered in a new peak of development.
There are records of Constantinople in the Old Book of Tang, and in addition to written records, many Constantinople gold coins were found in China, which also proves that there was direct trade between the two countries.
Internal reasons for the formation of the regional trade network of Constantinople
One of the reasons is the development of Constantinople's handicrafts, which are not only diverse, but also highly skilled, and its products are sold all over the world.
Most of the various workshops and workshops in Constantinople were concentrated near the palace, and the processing factories of weapons and gold and silver were scattered in different parts of the city, and the developed handicrafts and commerce further enhanced Constantinople's economic status.
Constantinople also has a well-established commercial system, including a monetary system, exchange system, customs system, etc., which made it invincible in the medieval Mediterranean trade activities.
Its seigniorage value system was also very stable, and it implemented the international monetary system of the gold standard, which laid the foundation for the prosperity of Byzantine commercial trade.
Because many foreign merchants were engaged in commercial activities in Constantinople, the government implemented a strict management system to protect normal commercial transactions. At the same time, the government made various arrangements for foreign merchants living in Constantinople.
As the highest local official of Constantinople, the county governor of Constantinople and his men strictly controlled the power to enter and exit and collect customs duties, as well as to grant and revoke trade privileges.
Every foreigner must not only be examined by the magistrate, but also need to report to the magistrate's office after entering the city, and cannot stay in the city for more than three months after registration. Their transactions also need the express permission of the county commissioner.
There is also a legislative book in Constantinople, the Legislation of the Mayor, which details the status of the various classes and the mutual influence of each class. The rules of guilds in various industries mentioned in the book are described in detail.