China and the world before the Opium Wars
Before the Opium War, under the rule of the Qing Dynasty, China had serious land annexation, constant disasters and famines in various places, and chaos one after another, and the entire society was full of crises and failures, falling into a historical situation of turning from prosperity to decline. In sharp contrast, after experiencing bourgeois revolutions, Western countries such as Britain, France, and the United States rose rapidly and began to carry out colonial expansion. The balance of power between East and West has changed dramatically.
Retreat Policy
The Qing government implemented a policy of restricting and prohibiting foreign traffic and trade. In 1757, the Qianlong Emperor ordered the closure of the three ports of Zhangzhou, Ningbo and Yuntaishan on the grounds that "where there are many foreign merchants, the people's customs are easy to float and make trouble", and only one port in Guangzhou is retained for foreign trade. At the same time, a "public bank system" was established, stipulating that foreign businessmen coming to China were only allowed to trade with public bank merchants authorized by the government. In addition, the Qing government also successively promulgated regulations and regulations such as the Regulations on the Prevention of Foreign Destruction (1759), the Regulations on the Trade of the People (1831), and the Regulations for the Prevention of Destroying People (1831), which set strict regulations on the business activities, residence, date of residence, and scope of action of foreign businessmen, and also restricted the types and quantities of exported commodities.
Sino-British trade before the Opium Wars
Before the Opium War, bilateral trade between China and Britain through the Guangzhou port accounted for about 80% of Sino-foreign maritime trade. The main commodities imported into China from Britain were various metal products such as wool, knives, clocks and watches, and cotton produced in the British colony of India. The goods exported from China to Britain were mainly tea, followed by raw silk and earthen cloth, in addition to silk fabrics, ceramics, sugar, rhubarb, camphor, mercury, etc. In the Sino-British trade, China has long been in the position of super, and the United Kingdom is in the position of super. In order to chase profits, reverse the trade deficit, and plunder Chinese people to the maximum, Britain began to smuggle opium to China in large quantities from the late 18th century. In 1840, in order to protect the criminal opium trade, Britain brazenly launched a war of aggression against China.

Exegesis:
Public banking system: It is an important measure of the Qing government to implement the closed policy. A public bank, also known as a "official bank", refers to a monopolistic organization registered and approved by the government and formed by merchants specializing in foreign trade at the Guangzhou Port of Guangdong Customs. The public bank was first established in 1720 and was dissolved due to the opposition of foreign and other foreign Chinese businessmen. In 1760, the Qing government restored the public banking system in Guangzhou. Abolished in 1770. It was restored again in 1782. The public bank has the function of both a merchant and an official, enjoying the exclusive right to arrange all import and export trade, and at the same time undertaking the obligations of disseminating official decrees to foreign businessmen coming to China and underwriting and paying import and export taxes. The system of public banking lasted until after the Opium Wars.

Anti-smoking campaign
Britain and the United States and other countries smuggled opium to China, which seriously poisoned the body of the Chinese people, caused a large outflow of silver, made the Qing government's already tight financial situation more difficult, and also weakened the combat effectiveness of the army. Faced with the grim situation of weak soldiers and silver shortage, the Qing government was determined to ban smoking. In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor sent Lin Zexu, the governor of Huguang, as the minister of Qincha, to Guangdong to ban opium. This was the beginning of the anti-smoking campaign.
opium
Opium, which is a transliteration of the English opium, commonly known as "big smoke", is a kind of narcotic drug made from the dried pulp in the poppy fruit. Opium is native to southern Europe and Asia Minor, and later spread to Arabia, India and Southeast Asia, and its main ingredient is morphine, which can be used in medicine. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, the vice of opium smoking was introduced to China from Nanyang. Opium smoking is very addictive, and when addiction comes, people will have snot and tears, and their hands and feet will be weak. Those who smoke opium for a long time are mentally weak, emaciated, and even killed.
East India Company
The East India Company was founded in 1600 as a British colonial institution in India. It had a "royal charter" as well as armies, fleets, etc., and completely monopolized Britain's trade with China. In 1757, the East India Company occupied the opium-producing region of Bengal and forced local farmers to expand their opium cultivation. In 1773, the British East India Company established a policy of invading China with opium, obtained the opium monopoly, began to promote opium cultivation in India, set up opium processing factories to manufacture opium, and carried out criminal opium smuggling in China. In 1797, the East India Company acquired a monopoly on opium production, expanding opium production.
Opium trade
Before 1767, the Qing government allowed only a small amount of opium to be imported for medicinal purposes. After the seventies of the 18th century, the authorities of British India determined the policy of invading China with opium, and smuggled opium to China on a large scale. The United States followed suit and joined the ranks of opium smuggling into China. After the thirties of the 19th century, Russia also imported opium from Central Asia to China. According to statistics, in 1800, 4,500 boxes of opium were imported into China, which increased to more than 40,000 boxes in 1838. The large import of opium not only brought great disasters to Chinese society in terms of political economy, but also seriously damaged the health of Chinese people. After the First Opium War, opium smuggling in China became more rampant by the great powers. After the Second Opium War, opium was taxed and imported under the name of "foreign medicine" and the opium trade was legalized.
Forbidden faction vs. forbidden faction
In the thirties of the 19th century, the Qing government was divided over whether to ban opium. In 1836, Xu Naiji, the secretary of the Taichang Temple, went to the Daoguang Emperor and advocated that in addition to prohibiting civil and military officials, readers, and soldiers from smoking opium, it was allowed to be legally imported after paying taxes on medicinal materials; Xu's idea of allowing tobacco cultivation in the interior was supported by Mu Chang'a, the chief minister of military aircraft, and Qishan , the direct governor, who were known as the Chi forbidden faction. Lin Zexu, the governor of Huguang, Zhu Jiao, a cabinet minister and attendant of the Ministry of Ceremonies, and Huang Juezi, the secretary of the Hongluo Temple, advocated a strict ban on opium. In 1838, Huang Juezi detailed the harm caused by the opium epidemic to China in a recital and proposed severe punishment for opium smoking. Lin Zexu pointed out that if the opium epidemic is allowed, China will have neither soldiers to fight nor money for decades from now. These people are called forbidden factions.
Daoguang Emperor
Daoguang Emperor, name Ai Shin Kyoro Wen Ning (1783–1850). During his reign, the Qing Dynasty had turned from prosperity to decline, with corrupt rulers, empty treasury, deserted armaments, and crises. In particular, opium smuggling was rampant and poisoned throughout the country, resulting in a large outflow of silver and a dangerous situation of "weak soldiers." In order to escape the crisis of his rule, the Daoguang Emperor appointed Lin Zexu as the minister of Qincha in 1838 and went to Guangdong to ban opium. After the outbreak of the Opium War, the Daoguang Emperor panicked and was anxious to maintain peace, and in 1842, sent Qi Ying, Ilibu and others to sign the "Treaty of Nanjing" with Britain. Later, the "Sino-US Treaty of Wangxia" and the "Sino-French Treaty of Whampoa" and "Sino-French Treaty of Whampoa" were signed with the United States and France.
Lin Zexu and Humen sell cigarettes
Lin Zexu (1785 - 1850), a native of Fujian Marquis (present-day Fuzhou), was a Jiaqing jinshi who served successively as the governor of Donghe Road and the governor of Jiangsu. In 1837, Lin Zexu became the governor of Huguang and banned opium smoking, which was very effective. At the end of 1838, he was appointed minister of Chincha and went to Guangdong to ban smoking. After arriving in Guangdong, Lin Zexu strictly banned smoking and destroyed the seized opium in public on Humen Beach in 1839. In order to prevent provocations by the British, he vigorously rectified coastal defense and actively prepared for war. After the outbreak of the Opium War, Lin Zexu was heavily fortified, making it impossible for the British army to carry out murder in Guangdong. In 1840, Lin Zexu was dismissed from his post because he was falsely accused by Qishan and others. In 1842, he was sent to Xinjiang. Before leaving, he wrote the verse "If the country lives and dies, it is better to avoid it because of misfortune and fortune", showing his noble feelings of dedicating himself to the country and not considering misfortune and blessing. Later, Lin Zexu successively served as the governor of Shaanxi and the governor of Yungui. In 1850, he was ordered to go to Guangxi to suppress the Taiping Rebellion, but died on the way.
Humen sells cigarettes
In December 1838, Lin Zexu was ordered to go to Guangdong as the minister of Qincha to ban opium. The following year, Lin Zexu arrived in Guangzhou, where he stepped up the rectification of coastal defense and strictly dealt with tobacco dealers; On the one hand, an edict was issued, asking foreign tobacco dealers to pay all the opium they had in their possession to the officials within a time limit, and to write a letter of guarantee, promising that they would never carry opium in the future. In the following two months, Lin Zexu seized more than 2,370,000 jin of opium. From June 3 to 25, Lin Zexu destroyed the confiscated opium in public on Humen Beach for a total of 23 days, which later became the trigger for the First Opium War, during which the Treaty of Nanjing was signed.
Opium war
When news of China's strict ban on opium reached London, the British government decided to protect the opium trade by force, provoking an armed invasion of China's Opium War. During this period, Britain dispatched troops and repeatedly attacked and fought in order to seize more aggressive rights and interests; In order to defend national dignity, the vast number of patriotic officers and soldiers in China bravely resisted the aggressors; The Daoguang Emperor, the supreme ruler of the Qing Dynasty, panicked and eventually compromised and made peace. The defeat of the Opium War brought profound disasters to the Chinese nation and brought great humiliation to China.
The Opium War, a war of aggression waged by Britain against China from 1840 to 1842. Because the war was caused by the British forcibly selling opium to China, it is called the Opium War. In 1839, the British government learned that China was not allowed to ban smoking and decided to send troops to China to protect the opium trade by force. In June 1840, British ships arrived in the waters of Guangdong and launched a war of aggression against China. Because Guangdong was on guard, the British army turned to attack Xiamen and Dinghai and approached Tianjin. The Qing court was shocked, and Lin Zexu was dismissed from his post, and the governor Qishan was appointed as the minister of Qincha, promising peace, and the British army returned south. In January of the following year, the British army again invaded the mouth of the Pearl River, and the Qing government was forced to declare war. In February, the British captured Humen. In May, he captured Guangzhou and forced the Qing general Yishan to sign the Guangzhou Contract. In August, British forces captured Xiamen. In October, Dinghai, Zhenhai and Ningbo fell one after another. In June 1842, the British captured the Wusong Fort, traced the river, and invaded Zhenjiang. In August 1842, when the British army arrived at Nanjing, the Qing government was forced to seek peace and signed the Treaty of Nanjing with Britain, which ended the Opium War.
The Law of Righteousness
Yi Lu, born into the British aristocracy, came to China in 1834 and was later promoted to the position of commercial superintendent in China. During his tenure, he deliberately sabotaged China's anti-smoking campaign and tried to encourage the British government to protect the opium trade by force. In January 1841, he coerced Qishan into acquiescing in the "Nasal Grass Treaty", and in May, he led an army to invade Guangzhou and coerce Yishan to sign the "Canton Contract". Later, because the British government was not satisfied with the right of aggression obtained by the righteous law firm, he was transferred from China.
The battle between Guan Tianpei and Humen
Guan Tianpei (1781-1841), a native of Shanyang, Jiangsu. He came out of the army and was appointed governor of the Guangdong Admiralty in 1834. After his arrival, he actively built artillery batteries, added artillery, trained sailors, and changed the old appearance of Humen coastal defense. After Lin Zexu sold cigarettes, he knew that Britain would not give up, so he put a few of his old clothes and a few removed teeth in a wooden box and sent them to his family, determined to die to serve the country. In 1841, the British army attacked Humen Fort. Guan Tianpei personally led the defenders to resist, he was wounded in more than ten places, blood stained his battle robes, but he still calmly commanded. In the end, due to the disparity in strength between the two sides, all the more than 400 officers and men defending Taiwan were martyred.
Qishen
Qishan (c. 1790-1854), a native of Manchuria Zhenghuangqi, served as governor, governor, and general. In 1840, the British army invaded Dagu and threatened the government by force. Qi Shan, who was directly subordinate to the governor at the time, promised to negotiate peace with the British army in Guangzhou, and framed Lin Zexu for "mistaking measures" to ban smoking. After that, Qishan was appointed minister of Qincha and went to Guangzhou to discuss peace. He dismissed Shui Yong, demolished Haiphong, and the following year arbitrarily signed the "Nose Piercing Treaty" with the British peace negotiator Yi Lu, privately allowing reparations, ceding Hong Kong Island, opening up Guangzhou and other terms, and was later exposed by Guangdong Governor Yiliang and others, and was dismissed from his post and questioned.
Yishan
Yishan (1790-1878) was the nephew of the Daoguang Emperor and served as counselor of Ili and general of Ili. In 1841, Yishan was ordered to go to Guangzhou to fight against the British. After arriving in Guangzhou, he rejected Lin Zexu's plan to defend the war, claiming that "defending the people is better than defending against the invaders", drinking and having fun all day, with no intention of war, but blindly arrogant. In May, he rashly ordered a battle in an attempt to get away with it, but retreated, raising a white flag at the head of the city to ask the British to surrender. He was coerced by the righteous law to conclude the Canton Contract. Its main contents were: pay 6 million yuan to the British army in Guangzhou for "ransom the city", compensate the British businessmen for losses of 300,000 yuan, the Qing army retreated 60 miles outside Guangzhou, and the British army did not enter Guangzhou. Afterwards, Yishan described the defeat as a victory and deceived the Qing government for approval. After the Opium War, Yishan was dismissed from his post and held accountable.
Chen Huacheng
Chen Huacheng (1776 - 1842) was a native of Tong'an, Fujian, and successively served as commander-in-chief and governor. After the Opium War, he was appointed governor of Jiangnan and guarded Wusongkou. In 1842, the British army invaded Wusong. Chen Huacheng led his troops to meet the battle, wounding several enemy ships and killing and wounding hundreds of enemy soldiers. Later, Niu Jian, the governor of Liangjiang, retreated from Baoshan, and Chen Hua suffered from the enemy. Someone advised him to leave the fort, and he said with great righteousness: "I have been ordered to suppress thieves, and there is no advance or retreat, only to serve the country with death." He then led his soldiers in hand-to-hand combat with the British, and was seriously wounded and martyred.
Battle of Zhenjiang
In 1842, the British fleet invaded the Zhenjiang River. The deputy capital of the Qing army, Tong Hailing, led more than 1,000 flag soldiers and 600 soldiers of the Qingzhou Green Camp to defend the city. The British landed, captured the high ground outside the city, and blew through the west gate into the city. Under the command of Hai Ling, the Qing army officers and men resisted step by step, and engaged in fierce street fighting and hand-to-hand combat with the British army. Two days later, Zhenjiang fell, most of the defenders of the city died, Hai Ling Tu hanged himself at the last moment, and his family was also martyred.
The signing of a number of unequal treaties and changes in Chinese society
After the Opium War, under the coercion of the invaders, the Qing government was forced to conclude unequal treaties with Britain, the United States, France and other countries, such as the Sino-British Treaty of Nanjing, the Sino-US Treaty of Wangxia, and the Sino-French Treaty of Huangpu, undermining China's territorial integrity and sovereign independence. As a result, the ancient Chinese Empire slipped step by step into the abyss of semi-colony and semi-feudalism. The decline and decline of the "Heavenly Empire" has awakened some scholars who are concerned about the fate of the country from their dreams, and they have opened their eyes to the world and issued a call to resist strong enemies externally and seek change from within.
Unequal treaties signed by the Qing Dynasty
Treaty of Nanjing
1842
Chinese and English 1. The Qing government opened five trade ports, including Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai.
2. The Qing government paid 21 million silver dollars to the United Kingdom.
3. Ceded Hong Kong Island to Britain.
4. Sino-British mutual agreement on Chinese tariffs; Abolish the public banking system.
Treaty of Humen
1843
Chinese and English
1. Britain enjoys "one-sided most-favored-nation treatment", and China "has new benevolence and other countries, and should allow the British to be equal".
2. Allow British people to rent land and build houses in "five families" and live permanently.
3. Set the customs rate at 5%.
Treaty of Mong-Has
1844
Central America
1. The United States shall enjoy all the privileges acquired by Britain in the Treaty of Nanjing and its annexes, except for land cession and reparations.
2. Expand the scope of consular jurisdiction.
3. U.S. warships may patrol trade at all ports of commerce.
4. One-sided MFN treatment.
Whampoa Treaty
1844
Sino-French
1. France acquired the privileges stipulated in the Sino-British Treaty of Nanjing and the Treaty of Humen, except for land cession and reparations, and all the privileges stipulated in the Sino-American Treaty of Wangxia.
2. The French could permanently reside at the five ports of commerce, trade freely, set up consuls, moor warships, etc.
3. French Catholics freely preached at trade ports and built cemeteries, and the local government of the Qing Dynasty was responsible for protecting churches and cemeteries.
Shanghai Concession Charter
1845
Chinese and English
1. The land north of Pidgin and south of Lijiazhuang was "rented to British merchants for the construction of premises and residences."
2. Bounded by the Huangpu River in the east and the boundary road in the west, the total area of 830 acres of land became the residence of the British, which later became the "British Concession".
Concession
The Western powers established areas under the direct jurisdiction of foreign countries as foreigners doing business and residing at China's ports open to the outside world. In 1845, Britain established the first concession in Shanghai through the Shanghai Concession Charter. In 1848 and 1849, the United States and France also successively established the "American Concession" and the "French Concession" in Shanghai. Since then, the concession system has been gradually extended to many trade ports such as Guangzhou, Xiamen, Tianjin, Hankou, Jiujiang, and Zhenjiang. When the concession was first opened, the Chinese government still retained territorial sovereignty and administrative and judicial management rights within the concession, but with the expansion of foreign aggressive forces in China, China's rights in the concession were gradually usurped. The great powers not only set up administrative organs such as the Ministry of Works Bureau or the Public Board of Directors in the concessions, but also set up patrols, courts, prisons, etc., exercised various powers such as public security, taxation, police, and justice, and implemented a system of rule completely independent of Chinese administration and law. The concession thus became a "state within a state" and a stronghold of foreign capitalist aggression against China.