Text | Ji Wanbai
Editor|Ji Wanbai
The feudal dictatorship and national oppression of the Qing Dynasty were more serious
These theories of Marx and Engels can help us understand the nature of the Middle Ages and the relationship between capitalism and the development of science and technology.
Due to the success of bourgeois revolutions from Britain, France and other European countries, synchronized with the Industrial Revolution and overseas colonial expansion in the 17th and 18th centuries, European technology was developing rapidly.
And China has become a sleeping lion and its feudal system tends to be darker and more authoritarian. In the end, China led to the painful result of being defeated by other countries.
The decline of Chinese feudal society was marked by the strengthening of feudal autocracy, the loss of national freedom, and the suppression of creativity.
The feudal dictatorship of the Ming Dynasty was significantly strengthened, embodied in the rule of feudal monarchy and the extensive monopoly of economic, legal, cultural and educational systems. Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty (Zhu Yuanzhang) (reigned 1368-98 CE) advocated a fierce and harsh policy.
He set up a spy agency called Wei Jinyi to secretly spy on state officials and national heroes in order to severely punish and even execute them.
In remote rural areas, he adopted the Yellow Book and the Atlas of Fish Scales to strengthen his control over the peasants and increase punishment through persistent deaths and exile and other serious deterrents.
The exam propositions are drawn only from the Four Books and the Pentateuch, which impose strict restrictions on the candidate's thoughts. The strengthening of feudal autocracy seriously inhibited the development of science and technology.
The author believes that by the end of the Ming Dynasty, the gap between Chinese science and technology and European science and technology widened greatly. Although great scientists such as Li Shizhen, Xu Xiake, and Song Yingxing have made great achievements, most of them are still hermits, and their achievements have not yet been accepted or put into practice.
Compared with European scientists of the same period, such as Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, and Harvey, the achievements of Chinese scientists were taken over.
At the end of the Ming Dynasty, the emergence of capitalism south of the Yangtze River and the introduction of Western culture provided a good opportunity to narrow the gap between science and technology between the East and the West.
During this period, advances in textile technology; metal fabrication and ceramics; Wind, water and coal use energy from handicrafts; The large labor force that employed the peasants could lead to the further development of capitalism.
In addition, the arrival of European missionaries, with the help of Xu Guangqi and Li Zhizao, greatly strengthened exchanges between China and foreign countries. However, as the Qing army crossed the border and the Ming dynasty collapsed, the development of capitalism turned in another direction.
After the Qing conquered the Ming Dynasty, the Qing Dynasty strengthened its understanding of the local culture, and the main part of the Qing Dynasty was the feudal autocracy of the Ming Dynasty. The feudal dictatorship and national oppression of the Qing Dynasty were even more serious than those of the Ming Dynasty.
Because the southeastern region, which arose in the early days of capitalism, was the most powerful anti-Qing region, it was strictly controlled and brutally suppressed.
Under the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty, a prosperous and prosperous culture in agricultural and handicraft production, the initial formation of the national market system has developed, and foreign trade has grown unprecedentedly. However, capitalism in the Ming Dynasty did not develop very well.
In general, the feudal autocracy was harsher than in the Ming dynasty. For example, the final decision on any country's problems, even the least important, is left to the emperor.
This shows that the fate of the country was in the hands of the emperor only. "Literary investigation" (Wen Yu) seriously undermines the freedom of intellectual thought. The "eight-legged prose" (八文) system becomes a corrosive act of the soul.
In addition, Kangxi and Qianlong organized a large compilation of documents, from the earliest to the present illustrated collections, and the four collections of the empire (Siku Quanshu). Their purpose is not to promote culture, but to divert the attention of literati, strengthen cultural control, and even undermine cultural awareness.
Although the Qing Dynasty made some achievements in science and technology, and the Kangxi Emperor was enthusiastic about science and technology, it did not change the overall lagging effect of Chinese technology. From the Qianlong period in his later years to the Jiaqing and Daoguang years, the drawbacks of feudal autocracy gradually appeared.
Compared with Qianlong, Jiaqing and Daoguang had less ability to make decisions on their own, and their power to control the imperial court was also weaker.
Thousands of years of national prosperity have finally been recognized by the world
Especially with the growth of the population, the extravagance and embezzlement of the royal family and officials, the inadequacy of the treasury, the collapse of the army, and fierce protests, the emperor could not restore his former prosperity.
In addition, Puxue, which began during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor, was based on textual criticism, correction, phonology, and semantics. It distances strangers and scholars from reality and immerses them in a pile of moldy old books and documents.
The author believes that with the closed border policy, the entire feudal society is officially ossified, and science and technology cannot develop. After 1840, China suffered the invasion of Western countries and became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal country, which further hindered the development of science and technology.
The gradual decline of science and technology in China in the 16th and 17th centuries was mainly due to the strengthening of the feudal autocracy. It is worth noting that the ancient Chinese tended to be self-centered due to their limited geographical environment and self-exaggeration.
In addition, China has always been a self-sufficient country, which makes people believe that China does not have to communicate with other countries and that China's culture is better than other countries.
These stereotypical beliefs did not change at the end of the Ming Dynasty, even though world-famous geographical classics such as the world map of countless countries (Kunyu Wanguo) were introduced to China by Matteo Ricci and his contemporaries Diego DePantoga and Giulio Aleni.
The Qing government's declaration of the Qing dynasty as a "prosperous heaven" became the rationale for its policy of seclusion. When foreign envoys arrived in China, Qing emperors often treated them as Qing clans rather than foreign missionaries to communicate on an equal footing.
As a result, China remains parochial and conservative. The Chinese nation has enriched its creativity and wisdom. Thousands of years of national prosperity clearly prove this. At the same time, the prosperous Chinese culture has also been recognized by the world.
However, Chinese has realized how the negative impact of traditional culture hinders the development of science and technology. Taking the reflection on ancient Chinese science and technology as an example, ancient Chinese people misjudged the relationship between heaven and earth.
They believe that heaven and earth are always opposed to each other, rather than treating the two as part of a whole. In the history of Chinese astronomy, theories such as the Tianguan Heaven Theory, the Bulbulent Sky Theory, and the Night Vision Theory (Xuan Ye Theory) determined the final universe.
Although ancient China has observed the Sun and Moon, Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars and Saturn with great precision and precision, even discovered precise planetary cycles.
Some world-famous classical scientific theories still could not be produced in ancient China, such as the "celestial model" theory of the ancient Greek Pythagorean school and the "geocentric model" theory of the ancient Roman astronomer Ptolemy.
"Harmony" generally refers to the relationship between the position of human beings in the universe and nature
In the context of Chinese philosophy and religion, the ancients paid special attention to the relationship between Tao and Ji, which can be found in Zhuangzi: The Nature of Raising Life (Zhuangzi: Yang Shengzhu). Tao refers to the way a person does something according to general order and general principles.
This is how the universe works. The ancients used it to grasp and explain everything. Ji refers to more specialized and technical skills.
In the study of various skills, the ancients tended to explore concrete facts in a very precise and subtle way, which may be the reason why ancient Chinese technology was at the forefront of the world during that period.
But the ancients tended to elevate skills directly into the Tao (i.e., general order or general principles) rather than focusing on specific scientific principles (i.e., the laws of natural science).
The author believes that the reason is that the ancients did not know that there were any special scientific principles, and no one explored them. As such, it often brings ancient natural science into a vague study limited by experience and sensory enjoyment.
This limitation is characteristic of our ancient's way of thinking. But it can be reduced through exchanges with other countries.
For example, ancient Chinese did not accept the ideas or theories of Euclidian geometry written by the Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria, Archimedes of Syracuse, about the floating body and about the center of gravity, and the ideas or theories of Copernicus, Galileo, and Darwin.
This is not because they do not understand these theories, but because of their historical reasoning and geographical limitations with the West, they lack adequate communication. In ancient Chinese philosophy, the concept of "cosmic harmony" (heaven) had certain limitations.
"Harmony" refers to the position of human beings in the universe and refers to the harmony between human beings and nature. However, this concept led the ancients to combine social and natural sciences.
Thus, natural science problems are explained in a socio-cultural way, and cultural problems are presented in a natural scientific way. Eventually, deviations occurred on both sides. For example, the concept of "principle" mentioned in ancient China is the concept of specific laws and specific principles.
The Mozi mentioned above also discusses Li from the study of light, force and geometry. We also mentioned Han Feizi's scientific thought, which he said is that everything is in its own form, and Li is the operation of everything.
In other words, Tao is the basic principle, and Li is the special way. Everything has it, and based on the study of knowledge, the Tao can be summarized. This explains the relationship between Tao and Li very well.
Scientific superstitions also have a certain negative impact on people
The concept of "harmony" also led to the emergence of theology. Dong Zhongshu of the Han Dynasty put forward the theory of "heaven and man induction". He embodied nature, believing that nature had a will and could monitor human virtues, giving blessings or disasters depending on the emperor's actions.
In ancient times, science and superstition were a mixed concept that led to astrology. Ancient astrology stimulated the development of astronomy to a large extent. But fundamentally, astrology remained superstition, criticized by Huan Tan and Wang Chong during the Han Dynasty.
Nevertheless, astrology was highly valued during the feudal autocracy for satisfying secular political needs. Astrology not only adversely affected the dissemination and development of science and technology, but also hindered political reform.
All the feudal rulers ossified themselves and declared that it was their destiny to rule the country. But at the same time, they also worry that changes in astronomical phenomena will cause unrest among people and threaten their regimes.
Therefore, some restrictive fields are set in astronomy.
For example, a book entitled Southern Qi: Astronomical Records (Nanjishu: Astronomical Records) records that in the Ming Jianwu (494-7 AD), only Taishi, one of the followers of the Ming Dynasty, could report observations of astronomical changes.
epilogue
But the emperor kept this information secret and forbade it to be disclosed to everyone. During the Tang Dynasty, the emperor (836-40 AD) prevented professional astronomers from communicating with others, requiring that all information be kept confidential.
In order to eliminate private research into astronomy, Emperor Taizong of Song forced those who knew astronomy to conduct inspections in the relevant departments in 978 AD and record their profit files in the relevant departments.
Anyone who violates the rules or regulations will face the death penalty. The following year, a number of astronomical magicians from all over the country will take these exams. Finally, a number of people will be selected to work for the astronomy department. The rest will be allocated to remote islands.
Ming Taizu (Zhu Yuanzhang) announced that anyone who studied astronomy privately would be exiled, and anyone who made calendars privately would face execution. There is no doubt that these rules hindered the spread and development of astronomy.
The theory of "induction between nature and man" has also penetrated into many fields such as feng shui, physiognomy, and spirituality. As we said before, ancient feng shui theories were governed in part by science.
Since its superstitious aspect was heavily influenced by the theory of "sensing between nature and humans", ancient feng shui theories contained many absurd ideas. Even in modern times, the theory of "natural and human induction" still influences the development of science and technology.
For example, the conservatives of the imperial court, in order to oppose the construction of railways in the "Westernization Movement", feared that "going to climb mountains would bring the curse of God."
Bibliography:
- [3] Muzhai Beginner's Collection. (Qing) Qian Qianyi, by Shanghai Ancient Books Press.2009
- [4] History of Chinese Pharmaceuticals. TANG Tingyou, author. China Medical Science and Technology Press.2007
- [5] Outer history of medicinal forests. ZHENG Jinsheng, author. Guangxi Normal University Press.2007