Sometime back in the 1850s, the corridors of Emma's house were lined with damp paper covered with frog eggs, the pigeons in the courtyard pigeon cages were "grunting", the cellar was crowded with rows of glass jars filled with brine, seeds floating on the salt water, and the air was filled with the stench of pigeon skeleton preparations. And all this is just the beginning: duck paws hang from glass containers for snails, lawns are piled with broken flowers, and weeds have been carefully cleared from fenced plots to study thriving seedlings. Of course, she had been married to Darwin for more than a decade at that time, and she was no doubt not surprised by this. She may have also told her friends that he was experimenting again.
For most people, Darwin was the founder of the theory of evolution, and his 1859 book On the Origin of Species allowed evolution to replace creationism as the cornerstone of biological research. But his evolutionary ideas did not emerge out of thin air, as James M. Thompson, a professor of biology at the University of West Carolina in the United States, said: T. Costa shows the lesser-known side of Darwin in Darwin's Back Garden: From Small Experiments to Big Theories. From Darwin's childhood to the Voyage of the Beagle (where his evolutionary conception originated) to the former home where Darwin lived for forty years, he conducted a series of astonishing experiments to test his signature theory of evolution without the help of specialized equipment. He believed that anyone could become an experimenter like Darwin and learn to observe the natural world more closely.
He also believes that Darwin was an observer and experimenter, and that Darwin's ingenious and eccentric investigations were not the ones that were buried in the laboratory. Darwin's home was his laboratory, and he and Emma's extended family of 7 surviving children were involved in his work, all of whom were able assistants. Darwin even published works with his children in some way. This article specifically selects the chapter on Darwin's voyage to the Beagle, where we can see how Darwin's ideas changed throughout the voyage—Darwin was by no means an evolutionist during the voyage—not even when he landed on the Galapagos Islands.
The following is an excerpt from Darwin's Back Garden: From Small Experiments to Big Theories, with the title added by the editors.
Darwin's Back Garden: From Small Experiments to Big Theories, [American] James W. Miller T. Costa, translated by Li Guo, China Pictorial Press, April 2021.
Original author 丨 [United States] James T. Costa
Excerpt 丨An also
Darwin's new perspective on the world originated with Grant and his research on plant-like animals
Darwin accepted his mission as a gentleman who followed the captain aboard the Royal Navy's Beagle (also translated as "HMS Begle") and performed his duties as an informal naturalist on a Royal Navy investigation mission. They left Plymouth on 27 December 1831 and returned nearly five years later.
I'm not going to outline here all of what Darwin did during the Beagle voyage — we'll explore how the Beagle voyage got Darwin to do what he later experimented with. Like any scientist working on a project, Darwin asked questions based on the theories he had learned, whether experimenting or observing.
As a university student, Darwin was only beginning to realize some of the grand and prominent problems in the natural sciences—the nature and age of the Earth and its geological formations, the patterns of the geological record, the diversity of life and its distribution, and the origin of what Herschel called (in particular) the "mysterious and mysterious" species and their variations. During this period and for much of the Beagle's voyage, Darwin pondered these questions and their possible mysteries within the framework of natural theology. At the end of the voyage, a new perspective on the world unleashed Darwin's inner impulse to experiment, which allowed him to ask entirely new questions that could only be posed by thinking about his observations from this new perspective.
Darwin's new perspective on the world began with Grant and his research on plants, and was further inspired by enlightening companions such as Henslow, Sedgwick, and his later colleagues at Cambridge, who had helped much on the Beagle's voyage. Darwin was particularly benefited by scottish geologist Charles Ryle's landmark book Principles of Geology, the first volume of which was published in 1830. To encourage Darwin, who was about to become his companion, to study geology further, Captain Fitzroy gave him Ryle's book as a gift.
Darwin later recalled that this was the book that Henslow had advised him to find and study, "but never accept the ideas advocated in it." Reading a book and not believing in it may seem like an outlandish suggestion, but it may reflect the reality of the time: there is a heated debate in academia about Ryle's new model of Earth's evolution and its history. Trained as a lawyer and knows how to argue, Ryle supports fellow Scotsman James Hutton, who sees world history as a never-ending force of nature that slowly but effectively shapes the earth's landscape over cyclical processes. There are no miracles or apocalyptic catastrophes, only the unstoppable cosmic forces formed by natural processes such as water bodies, volcanic action, glaciers and land uplifts and settlements. In Hutton and Ryle's view, this has always been the case, and it will always be. Thus, the subtitle of Ryle's book is "An Attempt to Explain past Changes in The Light of the Reasons Currently Shaping the Earth's Landscape."
Darwin probably immersed himself in Ryle's Principles of Geology from time to time. The Beagle left Plymouth Harbor before Darwin could overcome seasickness. The man in the same boat might have told him that he would soon be not seasick, but unfortunately he was somewhat unwell throughout the voyage, and looking back from the history of science, it might have been a good thing, forcing Darwin to leave the ship at every opportunity. (In fact, during the last 5 years of sailing, Darwin spent only a year and a half on board the ship.) Thus, the possibility of an imminent stop in Tenerife undoubtedly brought Darwin a double joy—both to relieve the symptoms of vomiting and to finally have the opportunity to see the scenery that Humboldt had enthusiastically praised. Lo and behold, the port of Santa Cruz is looming.
Darwin on the poster of the documentary Darwin (1992).
He struck the rocks with a hammer and surveyed new landscapes and geological formations with a higher interest
Unfortunately, the cholera outbreak in England prevented the crew of the Beagle from landing. The local government insisted that the British ship be quarantined for 12 days, but Captain Fitzroy, who was in a hurry, impatiently raised the anchor. The captain mentioned in his memoirs of his voyage: "This disappointed Mr. Darwin, who had dreamed of climbing the local mountain. In order to see it, the ship had to anchor where it landed, and then had to leave before it could see a glimpse of Tenerife, which was a disaster for Darwin. "But the Santa Cruz authorities' fears are well-founded: throughout the 19th century, epidemics such as cholera, which ravaged many parts of the world, killed millions of people.
Still, Darwin didn't have to wait longer to experience the tropical islands for the first time: the Beagle visited the Cape Verde Islands in mid-January, where St. Jago's Islands were located. Jago), Darwin noticed a striking sight: a white shell strip embedded in a cliff wall, about 13.7 meters above sea level. He was now looking at the phenomenon from Ryle's point of view: sea shells must have accumulated gradually upwards, because a sudden and violent movement would surely destroy the nearly horizontal shell layer. This view is consistent with Ryle's theory of "slow change over a long period of time." Darwin wrote to Henslow: "The geology [of St. Jago] is very interesting, and I am sure it was formed very late: there is some evidence of large-scale coastal uplift (which is an excellent period of volcanic rock origin), which Mr. Ryle might be interested in." ”
It was a moment he will never forget: the place he first visited confirmed "the extraordinary superiority of Ryle's approach to geology compared to any other author's method he had ever read, or later read" During the rest of the voyage, Darwin, guided by Ryle's Principles of Geology, examined the geology of many places in a targeted manner. As Ryle later admitted, Darwin answered his call, understanding that the insights and generalizations of the new science may still have their limits, but that "its followers aspire to the most precious fruits of our labor." At the same time, as we explore this magnificent field of study, the joy of first discovery belongs to us...".
Darwin devoted himself to the study of geology with a particular passion, brandishing hammers on rocks and surveying new landscapes and geological formations with greater interest. What reason did he have not to favor this new science? It answers awe-inspiring questions about the origin of the earth and its ancient age, and inspires scientific investigations that require diligent investigation and careful observation, all of which are excellent examples of Herschel's induction. Darwin filled notebook after notebook with his observations, contemplation, and understanding, and his admiration for Herschel grew. Darwin, after his first encounter with the tropical forest, excitedly told Henslow: "I have never experienced such a strong joy—I admired Humboldt before, and now I almost adored; he alone can write about the feelings in the hearts of people who enter the tropics for the first time." ”
Tiny sea creatures meant a lot to Darwin's ideas
Although Darwin increasingly saw himself as a geologist, this does not mean that he neglected other aspects of natural history. The mysterious marine invertebrates he first saw in Edinburgh caught his attention like a deep web. When the high seas between anchorages were not plagued by seasickness, Darwin would often open his own net of plankton to see what kind of marine life he could spot—based on the use of the second net he documented, he probably learned the art of weaving nets from Robert Grant. Darwin captured a large number of marine microorganisms, "so small relative to the scale of nature, but with incomparably beautiful forms and rich colors," he wrote in his diary. This was followed by unexpected reflection: "It is a magical feeling that so many beautiful creatures were clearly born for a very small purpose. ”
These tiny sea creatures meant a lot to Darwin's thinking. His zoological notes contain pages of microscopic images and observations, the most important of which are "phytophytes", which are now considered to belong to a mixed population of the Leuconidaria (several orders, including monomeric corals and group corals), bryozoa, Porous Porifera, and Rhodophyta (red algae with a hard calcareous shell).
In an important note in June 1834, Darwin detailed his observations of a peculiar creature similar to the grass moss (a moss animal) he had previously studied in Edinburgh. On the bottom of port famine in the Strait of Magellan, giant seaweed "forests" grow densely, a strange creature that spreads on its curved foliage. "I examined the polyps of this very simple grass moss," Darwin wrote, "so that one day in the future I may (revise) my own view of the imperfect organization of the whole race in Grant's doctoral dissertation." The paper mentioned here is an article written by the German naturalist August Friedrich Scheweigger in 1826, translated and published by Grant. The article argues that corals are plants rather than animals, a view that remained dominant until the mid-1830s. Darwin continued to work on the creature, trying to figure out whether he could find evidence of its animal characteristics—polyps with stimuli under the microscope, or "egg cells" similar to those he found in grass-bred mosses.
In a letter to his sister Catherine on the Beagle, Darwin noted that the ship was "100 miles (about 160.93 km) south of Valparaiso," describing: "As far as animals are concerned, in principle, I have recently decided to study mainly plants or corals: they are vast parts of the orderly world, little known, lack of classification, but with the simplest but most peculiar structures. In Valparaiso's letter to Henslow, Darwin said he observed "unusually shocking" corals. He was convinced that the classification proposed by Lamarck, Cuvier and others was incorrect. "After observing the breeding methods of the most obscure species like corals, I am quite sure that if they are not plants, they are not plants." So what are they?
On April 3, 1832, the Beagle sailed into the port of Rio de Janeiro. Copyright© Jay Mattnis. Photographed by Richard Milner. Courtesy of Jay Matnes and Richard Milner.
Darwin's ideas of this kind varied throughout the voyage. All of this is confusing: he collected Caryophyllia in the Galápagos Islands, a type of real coral that seems to reproduce in a similar way to thin-shelled grass moss, while the stony reef corals he found in the Cocos Islands (Madrepora, now called staghorn corals) are more coral algae. The problem, then, is that the confusing hydra corals ("I can't help but suspect that they are more coral algae in nature than hydra corals"), while the so-called coral algae Darwin found in Tasmania are more plant-like, multiplying through cell division similar to the germination process.
In his Zoological Notes, Darwin commented that this novel way of growing corals is "reminiscent of the reproduction of trees." Reproduction by budding or fibrous branches must be a trait of the plant, and coral algae seem to reproduce in this way. What's even more amazing is that even some plants and real corals do. "There are similarities between coral-forming polyps and turf-forming plants," he muses, "turf-forming plants" multiply by creeping branches or creeping stems. He reiterates after a few lines: "I think there are many similarities between plants and plants, polyps are like buds, and bud balls are like reproductive buds that form buds and young plants. ”
The meaning of such records is much richer than literal, and the differences between the plant world and the animal world begin to blur in Darwin's mind. These simplest animals and primitive plants (if that were the stages of evolution of coral algae) have some basic similarities in structure and reproduction patterns, and this fascinating idea will fit perfectly with his initial evolutionary theory of evolution a few years later. As we will see later, Darwin ultimately not only believed that plants and animals shared a common ancestor, but also looked for evidence that all life forms had a common ancestor. In addition, he proposed the idea of sexless ancestors bearing offspring of different genders. These views were not what he insisted on during the Beagle's voyage, but it was clear that seeds had been planted or sprouted.
Darwin during his voyage was by no means an evolutionist
Darwin was by no means an evolutionist during the voyage—not even when he landed on the Galapagos Islands, contrary to rumors. In fact, judging by Darwin's notes and commentary, he was struggling to understand the structure, adaptability, distribution, and relationship between organisms within his familiar framework of natural theology. However, we can always see the significance of Darwin's journey of contemplation. As a result, we'll see him busy thinking about the significance of finding an ant lion in Australia, small, ferocious larvae that create traps to trap careless reptiles. At the moment, these lions are located on a sunny riverbank in New South Wales, which is very similar to darwin's hometown population, but here it has an Australian exotic atmosphere.
Does the Australian fauna represent some kind of completely independent center of creation? Aliens such as kangaroos and platypus suggest that this possibility seems to exist, and the idea of introducing one or more "genesis centers" in the terminology of the time was a serious topic of discussion. The high similarity between the Australian and European ant lions suggests to Darwin that there is some correlation between the fauna on each side of these days. However peculiar the mammals in its territory may be, Australia is not a separate creation: for the ant lion, "what do the skeptics say?" How could two craftsmen make such a beautiful, simple, and ingenious invention at the same time? This is impossible— the Creator must treat the entire universe equally."
But toward the end of the voyage, we can still see Darwin pondering the relationship between the various mockingbirds of the Galapagos Islands. The birds on different islands seem to differ, but as a population they differ from those of the general continental species: are they a variant of the continental species, or are they sisters of the continental species? Why are they so similar but so different? What about the islands that allow new species to thrive like this? "If there is some basis for these accounts, archipelago zoology is worth a closer look, because these conditions can destabilize the species."
There is no doubt that the beagle's expedition brought a lot of field collection and observation. In Darwin's Journal of Researches (1839), the words "observe" or "view" appear 73 times, the word "check" appears 48 times, and the word "experiment" appears only 4 times. But our evidence suggests that Darwin was skeptical, he would have considered whether this or the case was true, and he would have been busy designing experiments to find out.
For example, we found that he would verify whether terrestrial flatoids could regenerate into two new individuals after being cut longitudinally into two segments ("In the 25 days after the slitting procedure, the better regeneration of the half-cut was no different from any other specimen...). Although this is a well-known experiment, it is still interesting to watch each important organ gradually emerge. ”）。 He also tested whether scavenger vultures could get food through sight or smell: "I've tried... Here's how to tie each vulture side by side with a rope and place it against the wall, and I pace back and forth about 3 yards (about 2.7 kilometers) away from them with a piece of meat wrapped in white paper, but nothing happens. "He wrapped the piece of meat a little bit forward until he had touched the beak of the vulture, and the bird immediately tore the piece of meat and swallowed it." In the same situation, it is completely impossible to deceive a dog. He wrote in his notebook, but after reviewing similar experiments by Audubon and others, he had to admit that "the evidence for and against the scavenger vulture's keen sense of smell is simply equal." Another experiment is related to the nature of corals. The experiment began in the Brazilian state of Bahia, the last stop on the beagle's return journey in August 1836.
Footage from the documentary Darwin's Struggle: The Evolution of Species (2009).
The early "experiments" during the Beagle's voyage still reflect a skeptical mentality
Darwin put some corals in sunlight to determine if they released gases like plants that can photosynthesize. "Several times, I put clusters of coral algae in the sun, and they seemed to release a lot of gas; I wonder what kind of gas it was." This is reminiscent of an experiment done by Joseph Priestley and Jan Ingen Housz in the 1770s, which aimed to prove that plants under similar conditions can produce oxygen bubbles. Other of Darwin's experiments seemed clumsy. He had thrown the marine iguana several times on the Galapagos Islands into "deep pools left by the receding tide far away" and then watched to see if it would return to where he had caught it in the first place. (Calm sea iguanas always do this, and we know that when Darwin rides on the back of a giant turtle and dangles around, this scene reminds us of Albert Wei's cartoon: Darwin riding on a giant beetle.) ）
Darwin's early "experiments" during the Beagle's voyage may have been done with play, but they still embody a skeptical mindset of eagerness to investigate, experience, and learn. Darwin, who threw the sea iguana, was also the same Darwin who was sensitive to any interesting or unusual situation, so that he could fill his discoveries, thoughts and observations with notebooks. For example, he kept throwing nets of plankton (which was easier than catching sea iguanas) and marveled at the harvest, imagining one day being able to unexpectedly catch a net of beetles in the distant sea.
One might think, it's not a big deal, but what are those beetles doing in the vast ocean? Later, he would realize that such bland observations were important for understanding geographical distribution. In addition, Darwin collected some fungi near Rio de Janeiro, which looked similar to those of his hometown. He wondered how this species from Europe could attract beetles, as if a beetle had just flown in and landed on the fungus in his hands. As in the case of the Australian ant lion, "we see a similar relationship between the two distant countries of the same species, the beetle, although the two species themselves are different.". What does this sentence mean?
Darwin was amazed at all this: he would have been amazed at the "spiders flying in the air", the countless young spiders in droves through the light and thin webs on the rigging of the ship, and the breeze could easily blow the spider silk away; he would also be surprised by the terrifying night of "butterflies falling like snowflakes" in the northern coastal area of Patagonia, when these "numerous" insects "fell in flakes or flocculents, far beyond sight"; and even more amazed at the "magnificent fireworks" on the South Atlantic. St. Elmo's Fire Elmo's fifire illuminated the mast and truss arm, and the entire sea "became so bright that even the penguins' whereabouts became clearly visible by the burning trails."
Words such as "beautiful" and "beautiful" appear no less than 105 times in Darwin's Voyage of the Beagle, and words such as "happy" and "gratifying" appear about 37 times. Although the word "sublime" appears only 6 times, each time it expresses Humboldt ecstasy. Later, after Darwin humbly (and perhaps with a little apprehension) gave Humboldt the newly published and dedicated Voyage of the Beagle, the great man expressed his warm praise and gratitude, and asked questions and commented on a wide range of topics, from glacial phenomena to volcanic action to climate and ocean currents.
The elated Darwin responded enthusiastically, including data on the temperature of the seas in different regions, and concluded with his admiration: "I have repeatedly read and copied some chapters of the Personal Account that I will never forget, and now the author of the book has given me such honor that it is really satisfying that this kind of thing is rarely applied to anyone." ”
Author 丨 [Beauty] James M. T. Costa
Edited by 丨Rodong
Introduction part proofreader 丨 Li Ming