One or two Manichaean five-Buddha mandalas
The American scholar Zs. Professor Gulácsi) restored two mandivar fragments of the Manichaean Five Buddhas. She conjures up a fragment of the Manichaean scrolls now unearthed in Turpan at the Asian Art Gallery in Berlin with III 5d, believing that it is likely to be a fragment of the Book of Pictures by the 10th-century Uighur version of Manichae. There are two figures remaining on the fragment, the upper right is a buddha statue, and his head and body are divided into three layers: gold, painted, and gold. Three Sogdian letters "BUT" are written on the chest, meaning "Buddha". The lower left of the Buddha is a section of the Great Halo, which is sandwiched between three layers of painted ribbons. This huge halo shows that there is a huge figure in the center of the original work, and Albert von Le Coq guesses that it is Mani. To the right of the canopy of the central figure there is a sun wheel, and the sun is the middle station of the soul (the light molecule) soaring to the bright world. The theme of this picture is the liberation of the soul under the guidance of the prophets. (Figure 1)[2]
Fig. 1 Fragment of a scroll with the image of the Buddha
（MIK III 4947+III 5d）
Another original vertical scroll has been lost, and only Le Kirk's 1913 publication of Gaochang contains a white drawing and its detailed description. Gu Leci made an analysis: there were 5 fragments in total. Fragment a is the largest, which is the right part of the original picture, including two large and three small figures, and only the uppermost part of the edge of the lotus seat where one large figure sits remains. Below it is a second large figure, with part of his head and lower body remaining, sitting on a lotus pedestal with his feet crossed; holding a long cross with a long handle and four arms for the honor guard, which may be Jesus. The prophet's lotus seat can be seen under the head and upper body of a person, and two hats remain on the left side, showing a total of three smaller figures, probably the hearers. Fragments b and c are part of the knees and body light of the two larger figures mentioned above (which may also belong to the other two similar figures on the left side of the original painting). Fragments d and e are part of the largest body light and lotus constellation, and they should belong to the largest figure in the center. On fragment d, in addition to the remnants of the huge body light, there is also the whole body of a child; on fragment e, in addition to the remnants of the lotus constellation, there is the head of another child. The two children seem to kneel in front of the largest figure in the center, representing the soul seeking liberation. (Figure 2)[4]
Fig. 2 White depiction of fragments of the vertical axis, with a partial figure of Yi numbers
Gu Leci restored the above two paintings, pointing out that their composition resembles a mandala, both of which have a large figure in the center and four smaller prophets around this large figure. Guleci once believed that the Manichaean texts unearthed in the East Central Asia (equivalent to Xinjiang) mentioned four prophets, all of whom were lower than Mani, namely Seth before the Great Flood in the Bible, Śakyamuni, Zoroaster, Zoroaster, and Jesus, the Christian leader, and the center may be Mani.
Gu Leci continued to study, believing that the great god in the center of the two paintings was the Light Mind (Huiming), and the four surrounding figures were the four primary prophets he sent to the world: Manichae, Zoroastrian, Buddha, and Jesus. Mandala designs and lotus flowers, among others, are characteristic of Eastern Central Asian art in the 10th century and are often seen in the Buddhist art of the region's contemporaries. Gu Leci studied the 2010 Edition of the Diagram of the Universe, a private Japanese collection, and examined the four deities sitting on the right side of the New Ming Realm: the god on the upper left holding a green object, which is the haoma (barsom) used in some Zoroastrian rituals, so the god is Zoroastrian; the god on the upper right has uṣṇīṣa-śiraskatā, the top bun), so the god is the Buddha Mani is the lower left figure and Jesus is the lower right one. (Figure 6)[6]
Guleci's research lays the foundation for our further exploration of the Chain of Apostles in Manichaean Central Asia. When Gu Leci completed these studies, most of the newly published Kasumigaura manuscript, The Mani Light Buddha (abbreviated M.), had not yet been translated into English. This article re-examines the relevant information, analyzes the tantric five Buddha mandalas, and uses the five Buddhas of the Manichaean Light Buddha to explain the two Manichaean five Buddhas mandalas and the Manichaean and four Buddhas in the "Complete Map of the Universe", which is in the context of Gu Leci and other scholars. On the basis of the two mandalas restored by Gulhi, we will first indicate the five Buddhas (M.497-567, 599-632) found in the Manicha,[7]:the largest prophet in the middle is the five Buddhas, and the four smaller prophets around them, from the lower left corner, clockwise, in chronological order: Nārāyaṇa of Hinduism, Zoroaster of Zoroaster, Zoroaster of Zoroaster, The Buddhist Three Buddhas Shakya (Śakyamuni) and the Christian Four Buddhas (Jesus). (Figures 3 and 4)
Fig. 3 Restoration of the fragments of the scroll
Fig. 4 Restoration of vertical shaft fragments
The above two Manichaean five Buddha mandalas from Gaochang, dated about the 10th century, reflect the Central Asian version of the chain of messengers, so only the text data analysis of the general chain of messengers can not fully reveal its meaning. There are three main differences between the Central Asian version and the chain of general messengers: First, in the materials of the general chain of messengers, there are many human ancestors of Judaism. Manichaeism developed in Central Asia, and the people knew little about Judaism and were more familiar with Hinduism, so Manichaeism replaced the patriarchs of Judaism with Hindu Narayan as messengers. The second difference is that in the general chain of messengers, there is no definite number of messengers, but The Central Amanics, under the influence of the five esoteric Buddhas, designated the messengers as five. Third, in the chain of messengers in general, Mani sat on an equal footing with his pioneers, and the central deity was Huiming, but in the East, Mani became the center of the chain of messengers.
2. The Chain of Messengers
Chapter 342 (K342) of the Coptic book of Dublin lists a number of messengers, including the ancient figures Adam, Seth, Enosh, Sem, Enoch, Noah, Shem, and Zarades (Zoroastrian), Buddha, Aurentes (Arhats? ), Kebellos? ), Elchasai (Elchasai?) ), Jesus the Christ, Manichae, etc. Various other sources refer to the number of messengers [9]. The Mani Light Buddhist Ritual Strategy (abbreviated as C.) yun: "Buddha-Yi Sedu Ulu (Parthian frištg rwšn [frēštag rōšn]), the native Sanskrit also." Translation cloud messenger of light. (C.5) Mani presented himself as the last messenger of light.
Professor Paul C. Dilley pointed out that the difference between the Greek Cologne Mani Codex (CMC) and the manichaean pioneers listed in K342 is that cmc is limited to those who have seen visions in antiquity, and Paul (Παῦλος), probably because this is of concern to manichaean missionaries in the Roman Empire, while K342 includes not only ancient figures, but also Suluchi, Buddha, Jesus, and also expands to Kebellos. Averentus and the apostles sent to Parthia reflect the religious diversity of late antiquity in Iranian cultural and political circles. The similarities between the two may be because they both come from The Sablagan. The Medieval Persian document M299a also includes ancient figures such as Shem, Shem, Enoch, Nikotheos, and Enoch.
The chain of messengers is not fixed to the four prophets. Some messengers have appeared in only one kind of information. For example, Kebelos (the completely wise [kevali], Jainism in India?) Erekse is only found in K342. Lao Jun (Lao Tzu) is also found only in the Yi Luo (C.13). With regard to the influence of the Indian religions on Manichaeism, in the past academic circles focused more on Buddhism, but now more and more information requires us to re-examine it from a broader perspective. Naroyan was only seen in the Chain of Messengers in Chinese, but he was probably the first person in the Manichaean Central Asian version of the Chain of Messengers.
Could it be possible for Manichaeism in Central Asia to absorb Hindu Narayan as its messenger? The answer is yes. Mani traveled to India shortly after enlightenment, probably having learned about the Indian Brahmins (Βραχμάνων) through the writings of Bardaiṣan (154-222) before his departure.[11] Mani acknowledged the antiquity and excellence of Indian culture, arguing that "there are three scripts that predate all other scripts: Indian, Syriac, and Greek." [12] One of the seven great sutras written by Mani himself, the Living Gospel (Tang Dynasty Chinese translation of the Ten Thousand Roots of wisdom), the Synaxeis codex, also has a positive view of India. Manichaean disciples had reason to believe that replacing Adam or Seth with Narayan as the first in the chain of messengers did not contradict Manichaeans' affirmative attitude toward Hinduism.
Manichaeism, Hinduism and Buddhism in Central Asia
After Manichae's death, the Sassanids continued to persecute the Manichaeans. The Manichaeans continued to flee eastward until they crossed the Oxus (Amu Darya) at Balkh (present-day Mazar-e-Sharif, Balkh Province, Afghanistan) and remained in the river (Transoxania). Manichaean rulers remained at Ctesiphon (formerly located southeast of present-day Baghdad) throughout the Sassanid period and were recognized by all Manichaeans. However, the main forces of Manichaeism were in Khorasan, Tocharian, and Sogdia, and the death of Mār Šād Ohrmazd of the Eastern Church in 600 was so influential that later generations designated the year of his death as a new era in the history of the religion. The Book of Books records that the Manichaeans in the area north of the Uhu River split off from the leaders of Babylon and became independent under the name of the Dināwariyya sect, who criticized the Lord and refused to obey him. There are also other controversies that are not worth mentioning. The split did not end until the time of Mihr (c. 710–40). The Denabe texts contain a number of Buddhist-Indian loanwords, reflecting the strong Buddhist influence. Two Sogdian letters from the circa 9th century show that the Telenabists in Central Asia still criticized the "Syrian" believers who had emigrated to Turpan for disrespecting religious creeds.
The Manichaeans of the 7th-8th centuries in Central Asia had the opportunity to go both eastward and southward to Hinduism, and it was probably in this era that they absorbed Hindu Narayan as their first messenger and fixed the number of messengers to five.
The Manichaean Path to the East, known as the Silk Road, coincides with the northern and eastern transmission of Hinduism. There were probably four channels through which Hinduism was introduced to China, one of which was from northwestern India, through Kashmir, over the Green Ridge, along the north and south roads of the Tianshan Mountains, to Yangguan and Yumenguan, which was also the main route for the introduction of Buddhism to China.[19] The worship of the Hindu gods spread along this green ridge road.
Āryadeva, a 3rd-century Hindu Mahayana Buddhist monk, fiercely criticized Hindu "foreign paths" and had a clear understanding of the Narayan faith. The Devadatta Bodhisattva Shakyamuni Sutra on the Hinayana Nirvana of the Chinese and Foreign Paths says:
The Fourth Veda (i.e., Veda) commentator said: "From the Narayan navel is born the Great Lotus, from the Lotus Brahma Brahma (Brahmā Deva) grandfather (pitāmaha), Pi Brahma does all the fate, lifeless things, from brahmans give birth to Brahmins, from the mouth of Brahma give birth to Brahmins, two arms to give birth to kṣatriya, two hips to give birth to Vaiśyas, from two heels to give birth to The Sudra (Śūdras)." ......”......
……
The twelfth outer path Māṭhara commentator Said Narayan, "I make all things. I am the most victorious of all sentient beings, and I give birth to all the worldly things that have a destiny and no life. I am the king of Mt. Osumi in all the mountains, and I am the sea in all the waters. I am the valley of all medicines. I am Muni Kapila of all the immortals. If a man's heart feeds me with water, plants, flowers, and fruits, I will not lose the other, and the other will not lose me. The Mahabharata commentator said, "All things are born from me, and there is nowhere else, called nirvana." It is often called. It is the nirvana cause. ”
The fifteenth outer path, Maheśvara, said: "The fruit is made by Narayan, Brahma is the cause, and the Maharaja is one and three, the so-called Brahma, Narayan, and Maharaja." ”[20]
Hinduism is based on the Creator Brahma, the Guardian Viṣṇu (also translated as Viṣṇu, Vishnu), and the Destroyer Shiva (Śiva) (i.e. Mahara) as the trimūrti. Naroyan played an important role in the formation of Vaiṣṇavism and became one of Vishnu incarnations. An oval agate seal inscribed with a Vishnu image from the 4th century was found in Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province,[22] as one of the relics of the spread of the Vishnu faith in Central Asia. Shiva was more popular in Central Asia, and his son Gaṇeśa also left many relics in Central Asia. Brahma often appears with the god Indra (Indra).
Statues of Hindu gods, in addition to individually along the Silk Road, sometimes appear in groups. On a map on the west wall of Cave 178 of Kyzyl, there is The Emperor and Brahma directly above the Buddha, and Uma Maheśvara (i.e. Shiva and his wife, the goddess of the Snow Mountain, sitting on the back of the sacred cow Nandi) directly above the Buddha, and Vishnu on the right side of the Buddha. The "Northern Heavenly Ancestral Hall of the Eastern Border City" that Xuanzang saw in the Quzhi Kingdom (Guizi) was probably a Hindu temple. The north and south sides of the central niche on the west wall of Cave 285 of Dunhuang (Western Wei Caves) are painted with Shiva, his son Kumara (i.e., Saikena), the ganesha and Vishnu, The Emperor, and Brahma.
Fragments of Manichaean books unearthed in Turpan, MIK III 4979a, b depict Shiva, Brahma, Vishnu, and the ganesha on the obverse, while another fragment of a Manichaean painting, MIK II 4959, also depicts four gods on the obverse, although only Shiva and Brahma remain relatively intact.
Central Asian Manichaeans, whether they became independent in the name of the Denabe sect or after the end of the public division but maintained their independence, had the opportunity to have extensive contact with Hinduism, directly or indirectly, through Buddhism. Narayan is mentioned many times in the Buddhist scriptures, and as early as the Western Jin Dynasty translation of the "Decision Vinaya Sutra", Narayan Buddha is one of the thirty-five Buddha names. The Huayan Sutra, translated by Buddha Bhadra in 418, lists the dwelling places of bodhisattvas, including "There is a dwelling place for bodhisattvas in the land of Zhendan, called Nārāyaṇa-parvata, where bodhisattvas used to dwell. [25] The Nikzo Sutra, translated by Narentiyeshe in 585, lists the residences of the saints given to the dragon kings, and it says: "The name of the Han kingdom in Yanfuti, Nārāyaṇaprabhāsa?), the residence of the sage Muni (muni), was given to the King of Heide dragons. [26] His 566 translation of the Yuezang Sutra lists the residences of the Great Pagoda and the Immortals of Muni, including the "Naluoyan Grottoes", which may be the Naluoyan Mountains mentioned above,[27] and pilgrimage to the Naluoyan Caves became an important form of Naluoyan belief in the Tang Dynasty. The Lunar Sutra also lists the 55 kingdoms and their protectors, and with regard to the 17th kingdom, it says: "His Holiness the Great Lord, the Mani Kingdom, has instructed the five hundred dependents of the Son of Heaven and the two hundred dependents of Gandharva Nārāyaṇa ... [28] Gan Min Po is one of the eight Buddhist protectors.
Under the influence of these sutras, the Manichaean Parthian exorcism M1202, written in Central Asia in the 6th century, lists the first hours of the day, a certain medicine fork, the occupation of a certain country, how many sons there are, and what food to eat, including: "The seventh hour of the day: The medicine fork (yxš) called Nrg'n dominates it. He occupies Aurora (cynyst"n). He had eighty thousand sons. Their food is fruit. "The medicine fork is also one of the eight members of the Protector. nrg'n=Naragān, probably an inverse spelling of *Narayān, can be thought of as a popular or local way of writing Nārāyaṇa (n'r'y'n in Sogdian, see Prince Sudana Bunsen Sutra (VJ.) and Paris Tibetan Sogdian Languages No. 8 [P 8]). In addition to imitating Buddhism, Manichaeism in Central Asia absorbed Narayan as a protective god in exorcisms, and also reinvented Narayan as a messenger of light.
The Manichaean Sogdian Instrument TM393 (So18248 i) writes: "The first evil deed in the East was A... He corrupted Brahmanism (pr'mn'nch δynh) and brought ten disasters to the world. "The following is an example of sinners who slandered Suluchi, Shakyamuni, and Christ, who corrupted the Muhya religion (mwγ'nch δynh), Buddhism (pwty δynh), and Christianity (trs'k'nch δynh). Depending on the context, the beginning should list the sinners who slandered the Brahmanic messengers, but the documents are broken and fail to preserve the names of the Brahmin messengers. Manichaeism in Central Asia juxtaposes Brahmanism with Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Christianity.
It is common for later religions to absorb the gods of earlier religions. Jainism reduced Naroyan to a strongman, conquered the tyrant Pratinarayana, and became the quasi-reincarnation king (Ardha-Cakravartī), and the consequences of the conquest of evil eventually led to hell. Buddhism used narayan's strength to set off the great shores of buddhas and bodhisattvas, but also reduced them to protectors, and eventually became the door gods of the nursing home. Manichaeism first imitated Buddhism to adopt Narayan as protector, and then remodeled it as the first messenger of light.
Why did Central Amanicism determine the number of messengers to five—namely Zoroastrian Zoroastrian, Buddhist Buddha, Christian Jesus, and Bon-leader Mani, plus Hindu Narayan? Éd. Chavannes), Boch and P. Pelliot), Toyoyoshi Yoshida, and Mr. Yang Fuxue all believe that the Five Buddhas of Manichaeism are likely to be related to the worship of the Five Buddhas of Tantra.
4. The Five Buddhas of Manichaeism
Under the influence of the Hindu narayan worship and the occult five Buddhas, Central Asian Manichaeism formed the five Buddhas worship, which is not only evidenced by the above two Manichaean five Buddhas mandalas, but also by documentary materials. The inscription "One Light" (Narayan Buddha's Work) (H.164) copied by Emperor Zongzong of the Tang Dynasty (763-779) is obviously a false pretext, just like the title of "YiShu Zuo" (H.176) in the Chusheng Zanwen. This shows from one side that in Eastern Manichaeism, Naroyan is on a par with Yishu.
The Southern Song Dynasty Huang Zhen wrote the "Records of Chongshou Palace" in the fifth year of Jingding (1267) that Zhang Xisheng, the abbot of the Huahua Manichaean temple Chongshou Palace, provided the basis for the existence of Manichaeism for The taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian classics, one of the bases of Buddhism is: "Bai Lotte was obsessed with internal classics in his later years, and even his title Manichaean Sutra also has the sentence 'Five Buddhas follow the light', which is bound to be the one who has access to the common." ”[33]
Zhi Pan's Chronicle of the Buddha, written in 1269, preserves Bai Juyi's verses in its volume 48 clouds:
Description: Taste the "Yi Jianzhi" cloud, eat vegetables and demons, three mountains are particularly blazing, the leader of the purple hat wide shirt, the woman black crown white dress. Called the Ming Church. ...... Take the Diamond Sutra "One Buddha, Two Buddhas, Three Four Five Buddhas" and think of it as the fifth Buddha. Also known as the End Mani, the HuaHu Sutra "took the natural light of the Dao Qi, flew into the Neighboring Countries of the Sina Jade Realm, and demoted the birth palace to the prince, and became a monk called the End Mani", in order to prove itself. ...... The compound hypothesis called Bai Lotte Shiyun: "Quietly read the legend of Su Lin, Mani Dao is amazing." The second sect chen silent, the five Buddhas follow the light. The sun and the moon are respectful, and Qiankun recognizes what is born. If you talk about Jai Jiezhi, Shi zi is good and famous. These eight verses are expressed at the beginning of the scriptures. ...... Taste Lotte's "Changqing Collection", that is, the poem of WuSu Lin. Lotte knows the Buddha, should this be an untamed word[34]?
Bai Juyi was involved in Uighur affairs many times. At the beginning of Yuan He (806-21), the Uighurs made another pilgrimage, beginning with the Manichaean monks, and the Khan often discussed politics with the Manichaean monks. The capital master Chang'an built a temple for it, and its large Mani traveled to and from the country for several years, and the small ones turned around every year. Bai Juyi's poem "Yin Shan Dao" reflects the shortcomings of the Tang Uighur silk horse trade, saying that Princess Xian'an frequently played for the Khan on the inferior silk of the Tang Dynasty. When Bai Juyi served in the Hanlin Academy, he wrote documents for the emperor many times. In the third year of Yuan He (808), Princess Xian'an died in the Uighurs, and in March Baiju Yidai Tang Xianzong wrote the "Tribute to Princess Xian'an". Xia, Bai Juyi wrote the "Book with the Uighur Khan" for the emperor, involving the silk horse trade, talking about the Manichaeism in Dongdu and Taiyuan temples, which were responsible for the division and monks, and did not have to work harder to inspect the school, so that the emperor general An Qingyun provided for the monks, and gave gifts to the internal and external prime ministers and judges, manichaees, and sent greetings. In March of the first year of Changqing (821), Baoyi Khan died, and Bai Juyi wrote the "Tribute to uighur Khan" for Tang Muzong; in April, he wrote the "Book of new Uighur Khan Text", which enfeoffed Junden Liluo Yulu without mishi sentence Lord Lu Vija Khan, and later wrote the "Book of Uighur Khan Plus Text", adding the name of Chongde Khan. He also wrote pei tongchong uighur hanging altar book system, Jia Zhao into the Uighur deputy envoy system.[35] In May, the Uighur Prime Minister, The Governor, the Princess, and Mani arrived to welcome the Princess Taihe. Bai Juyi probably learned the teachings of the worship of the Five Buddhas from the Uighur Manichaean teachers and disciples, so there is a sentence that "the five Buddhas follow the light".
Sha Qi, Bo Xihe, and in A Manichaean Classic Found in China, they have discussed the "Five Buddhas": the "Five Buddhas" in the "Su Lin Poem" are unlikely to refer to the five sons of the Original Meaning in the Manichaean Fragments of The Jingzang, that is, the "Five Bright Bodies". This should be a very different concept. Mani acknowledged That Buddha, Zoroastrian, and Jesus were the "messengers of light" before him; Albirûnî recorded that "in this last age the office of the prophet fell to me Mani"; and the Manichaean Gospels say that Mani was the last prophet (the "seal" of the prophet). If these explanations are accurate, then the two forms of "fifth Buddha" and "five Buddhas" can be perfectly explained. The "fifth Buddha" worshipped by Manichaeans can only be Manichae. However, the "five Buddhas follow the light" refers to the "five bright messengers", who were born one after another to ensure the purification of the light elements in the world.[36] According to the information available at the time, they speculated that after the four prophets, there was a Maitreya or Saošyant, but that was also the incarnation of Manichae, thus forming the five Buddhas. Today the Manichaean Light Buddha clearly tells us: "The five Buddhas, the Manichaean light, the last light messenger" (M.509). Manichaeism in Central Asia did not absorb Maitreya of Buddhism or Sushyant, the savior of Zoroastrianism, as one of the five Buddhas, but rather as the first Buddha of Hindu Narayan.
The Diamond Sutra does say of the Buddha telling Subhuti: "After rulai is extinguished, at the age of five hundred, there are those who have taken vows to cultivate blessings, and in this chapter they can have faith, and as a matter of fact, they should know that people are not one Buddha, two Buddhas, three or four buddhas, but have planted good roots, and have planted all good roots in the immeasurable tens of millions of Buddhas." [37] However, it has not yet been discovered that Mani as the fifth Buddha has anything to do with this.
The question of the "Fifth Buddha" is also discussed on pages 334-335 of A Manichaean Classic Discovered in China,[38] the Diamond Sutra is a general term for Vajracchediká, but can also be used as an abbreviation for other vajra sutras of the Vajrayana tradition. The Three Tibetan Dharma Numbers of the Great Ming Dynasty quote a passage explaining the Five Buddhas (cinq dhyānibuddha): the Chinese Vairocana, the Eastern Akṣobhya, the Southern Baosheng Rulai (Ratnasaṃbhava), the Western Amitabha Buddha (Amitābha), and the Northern Void Achievement Rulai (Amoghasiddhi). It is said that this verse is from the Commentary of the True Samadhi Manager of Dalekyaki Vajrayogini[39]. However, Shah, Bo Xihe and he do not find this verse in the Non-Empty Translation of the Great Joy Vajrayogini True Samadhi Sutra Prajnaparamita Commentary (abbreviated as the Prajnaparamita Commentary)[40]. The passage of the Three Tibetan Dharma Numbers of the Great Ming Dynasty may have been rewritten from the Prajnaparamita Commentary. The Prajnaparamita Commentary is the system of the sixth session of the Eighteenth Society's Vajrayogini Sutra.
Toyoyoshi Yoshida cites a passage from the Diamond Sutra dealing with "one Buddha, two Buddhas, three buddhas, four or five Buddhas" and a passage from the Mani Guang Buddha about the five Buddhas (M.497-514); notes the above discussion in Notes 1 of Pages 334-335 of the Manichaean Classics Found in China; considers the Diamond Sutra in Yi Jian zhi or should be understood as the Diamond Sutra. In the Vajrapani mandala, with the Great Sun As coming as the center, there is a Rulai in the east, west, south, and north. [42] The two Manichaean images of the Five Buddhas studied by GuLeci are centered on Manichae and surrounded by four previous prophets, with a composition similar to a mandala. Yang Fuxue thought that this statement was appropriate[43].
V. The Five Buddhas of Esoteric Mandala
As Manichaeism and Hinduism spread eastward along the Silk Road, the Five Teachings of the Occult Buddhism also spread eastward along the Onion Ridge Road, and the spread of the three overlapped in time and route.
The Five Buddhas of Manichaeism were formed on the basis of the Four Prophets. The Five Buddhas of Esoteric Buddhism were developed from the basis of the Four Buddhas.[44] Dharmakṣema (385-433) Chinese translation of the Golden Light Sutra (Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sūtra) Yun: The Bodhisattva of Faith is meditating: "Why is the life span of Shakyamuni short for eighty years?" The four Buddhas, such as the Eastern Achan, the Southern Treasure Phase (Ratnaketu), the Western Immeasurable Life (i.e., Amitabha Buddha), and the Northern Subtle Voice (Dundubhisvara), explained to the Bodhisattva of Faith: "Countless robberies, billions and millions, buddha's life is like this, immeasurable." [45] The theory of the Four Buddhas in the Golden Light Sutra was inherited by later Mahayana Buddhism and early esoteric texts.
The five Buddhas depicted in Volume IX of the Amoghapāśakalparāja, translated by Bodhidharma from 707 to 709, are: Shakyamuni Buddha in the inner courtyard( Śākyamuni), Agan Rulai in the east, Ratnasambhava in the south, Amitabha Buddha (Amitābha) in the west, and Lokendrarāja in the north.
According to Western Manichaean teachings, Light Mind is the father of the messengers, but in Eastern Manichaeism, Mani became the center of the five Buddhas. The Five Tantric Buddhas replaced shakyamuni shakyamuni in the Sutra of The True Words of the Immortal Transformation of the Buddha, Vairocana, the Dharma-body Buddha. The Vairocanābhisambodhi-sutra translated by Śubhakarasiṃha, 724, is an important text of occultism. The Great Nikkei Vol. 5 of the Great Nikkei, the Into the Secret Of the Dzogchen Thirteen, features the Great Rishi (Vilujana) as the Buddha of the Chinese side, and the Four Buddhas as follows: "Ratnaketu in the East, Samkusumitarājendra in the South, Dundubhisvara in the North, and Amitābha in the West." [48] The Eastern, Northern, and Western Buddhas here are from the Southern, Northern, and Western Buddhas of the Golden Light Sutra, respectively, and the Southern Kaishihua is from the Southern Kaishi Lotus King Of the One-Character Buddha's Sutra.[49] This became popular with the Five Buddhas of the Tibetan realm.
The Second One of the Mandala Mantras in The Great Nikkei Volume 1 mainly explains the deities of the "Great Compassion Hidden Mandala" and their corresponding positions. The third house includes a number of Hindu deities, with Vijaya to the west. A line of commentary from the Great Nikkei shu reads: "Again, we placed Wei Se niu, which was called Vinu in the old translation, and this is Narayan Tianya." ...... All these great gods are the knowledge of all, and all beings in the world are dependent on their sexual desires and causes, and they are offered to the sect. In order to take care of all sentient beings, Vishnu is to show the same body everywhere, that is, to make a banner of worldly consensus, a banner of the secrets of the world. [51] In order to attract Hindus to conversion, Esoteric buddhism incorporated Hindu deities such as Narayan (Vijaya) into the system of mandala deities. Manichaeism also included Hindu Narayan in its chain of messengers in order to attract Hindus.
Another important occult classic is the Vajraśekharasūtra, which has eighteen meetings, the first of which is the Sarvatathāgatatattvasaṃgraha, with a total of four articles, the first of which is Vajradhātu. In the eleventh year of the new century (723), Vajrabodhi translated the first part of the eighteenth session of the Vajrapani Sutra, entitled "Skimming the Chanting Sutra in Vajrayogini Yoga", about the five Buddhas: "And I want to be on all sides of Vishnu Buddha, and sit with the seat of the Master and Son, as stated above. ...... In its east, as mentioned above, the elephant seat is like sitting on it, thinking of Akṣobhya. In its south, as mentioned above, the constellation of Horse sits on it if you want to give birth to a Buddha. In its west, as mentioned above, the peacock constellation sits on it when you think of Amitabha Buddha. In its north, the garuḍa (golden-winged bird) seat, which is not empty, wants to become a Buddha and sits on it. [52] This is the Vajrapani mandala buddha.
The Museum of Jimei in France is now from a Painting of the Five Buddhas of the Diamond Kingdom (MG.17780) in Dunhuang, depicting a five-legged seated Buddha with both hands flat on the abdomen. The central golden Vilujana Buddha, holding a Wheel of Law, sits on the white lion constellation; the white Eastern Achan Buddha in the lower right, holding a vajra pestle, sits on a white elephant seat; the cyan Southern Po Sheng Buddha in the upper right, holding a Mani treasure, sits on a cyan horse seat; the red Amitabha Buddha in the upper left, holding a lotus flower, sits on a cyan peacock constellation; the dark green non-empty Buddha in the lower left, holding a vajra pestle, sits on a golden golden-winged bird seat. (Fig. 5) The lower part is depicted with a provider, etc. [53]. The structure of the above two Manichaean mandalas is obviously modeled after the tantric five Buddha mandalas.
Fig. 5 The Five Buddhas Mandala of the Vajrapani Realm (MG.17780)
Silk painting part. Dunhuang.
The number of gods in the Outer Vajrapani Branch of the Esoteric Wokou Mandala is huge, more than 200, compared to the gods of the Vajrapani Outer Vajrapani of the Vajrapani Realm, which is more regular, totaling 40. Dānapāla's translation of the Buddha's Sayings of All Things as It Comes true Mahayana Sutra of the Samadhi Sutra translates the first session of the Vajrayogini Sutra of yoga, and its volume 10, The Sixth and Second Rituals of the Descending III Mannala, depicts the five types of celestial gods of the Vajrayogini, including the "Narayan Heavenly Illusion Vajrayana" of the upper realm. [54] Dangcuo argues that the Vajrapani deities in the mandala are typical examples of occultism's absorption of other religions, especially Hindu deities, for their own use. Hindu Narayan was rebuilt by Eastern Manichaeism as the First Messenger of Light, and can also be said to be one of the typical examples of the pagan gods being absorbed by Manichaeism for their own use.
Vi. The Four Buddhas and Mani
The Uighur Ode to Manichae, written around the beginning of the 10th century, also confirms that there were four Buddhas before Manichae:
[65-66] You came after the Four Buddhas (tört burxanlar) and you attained supreme enlightenment.
[260-1] You deserve to wear the flat crown on the heads of the former Buddhas (sökii burxanlarnıng).
[262] Therefore I praise and worship you.
The "Four Buddhas" in the Manichaean Hymn, judging from the two Manichaean five-Buddha mandalas, include at least Shakyamuni and Yishu, and Mani came after the "Four Buddhas". The "four Buddhas" in the Uighur texts should be the "four great Buddhas" (M.196) in the Mani Light Buddha, that is, Narayan, Suluchi, Shakyamuni, Yishu, that is, the one, two, three, and four Great Rulai. （M.543-559）
Western Manichaeism does not have a narrative of the Light Mind (Huiming) and the Four Prophets in groups of five, much less the artistic expression of the mandala. The Light Mind is one of the gods summoned for the third time, the Father of the Messengers. Of the four prophets, Jesus is special. On the one hand, the Light Jesus was also one of the Third Summoned God of Salvation, and on the other hand, the historical Jesus of Nazareth came to earth as a living man as the Messenger of Light. Mani, who was born in Surim, was like Zoroastrian in Persia and Shakyamuni in India, but was not a god, but a messenger of light who came to earth in the flesh.
In Eastern Manichaeism, the status of many gods in the genealogy of the gods changed. The "Manichaean Light Buddha" best reflects the status of the gods, when pushing the "one heart to please" in lines 162-208, arranged from high to low: first, the Supreme Buddha of the Merlot Purple Emperor, that is, the great father of the highest god; second, Yishu, that is, Jesus as a god; third, the Electric Light King Buddha, that is, the Virgin of Light; fourth, Mani Light Buddha, that is, Mani as a god; fifth, Sun and Moon Buddha; sixth, Lushena Buddha; seventh, holding the world's venerable Buddha, that is, the firstborn son of the pure wind; eighth, four great Buddhas, that is, naroyan, Suluchi, Shakyamuni, Yishu and other four prophets, As a group, they also have the status of gods; 9. The Jade Emperor honors the Buddha, that is, the Ten Heavenly Kings, the second son of the Pure Wind; 10. The Great Bodhisattvas who appear with the light[reveal]; 11. All the Buddhas of the past and the future. This text explains that the number of light as the savior is second, the Manichae Buddha as the god of salvation is in fourth place, and the number of yi and Narayan, Suluchi, and Shakyamuni as a group of four prophets rank eighth, and Huiming is not in this ranking. [57] The Hungarian scholar Mr. Gábor Kósa argues that Mani always plays a central role in the so-called "Five Messengers" of the Mani Buddha, and his biography is more detailed than others, he is known as the "Last Messenger of Light", and he is a central figure in the chart showing the Five Buddhas.
The "Complete Map of the Universe" basically corresponds to this. The main god sitting on the golden platform in the middle of the New Ming Realm is surrounded by a mandorla (not only a halo), and there are 12 attendant gods on either side. The main god may be the illuminated number as the savior, and the twelve wise men may stand on either side of it. To the right of the main deity are the four great Buddhas: from the left are Narayan, Suluchi, Shakyamuni, and Yishu as messengers; they appear only once. Mani, dressed in a red-rimmed white robe, appears not only on the left side of the Neo-Ming Realm, but also in the rest of the map at least 16 times. However, the academic community has not yet been able to confirm the Bright Mind (Huiming) on the "Complete Map of the Universe".
Figure 6 Part of the "Complete Map of the Universe" (New Bright Realm)
To sum up, under the influence of the Hindu worship of Narayan and the worship of the Five Buddhas of Esoteric Buddhism, the Central Amanics of the 7th and 8th centuries set the number of messengers to five, reshaped Narayan into its first messenger of light, and added four prophets, with Mani as the center, forming an Eastern version of the chain of messengers - the five Buddhas: Narayan, Suluchi, Shakyamuni, Yishu and Mani.
* This paper is one of the results of the Ministry of Science and Technology's special research project "Manichaean Rituals, Texts and Images" (MOST 108-2410-H-130-029-MY2).
[1] Die buddhistische Spätantike in Mittelasien, von A. von Le Coq, Berlin: D. Reimer [etc.], 2. t. Die manichaeischen Miniaturen, 1923, p.45, Taf. 6e.
[2] Manichaean art in Berlin collections: a comprehensive catalogue of Manichaean artifacts belonging to the Berlin State Museums of the Prussian Cultural Foundation, Museum of Indian Art, and the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences, deposited in the Berlin State Library of the Prussian Cultural Foundation, by Zs. Gulácsi, Turnhout: Brepols, 2001, pp.146-148. Mani's pictures: the didactic images of the Manichaeans from Sasanian Mesopotamia to Uygur Central Asia and Tang-Ming China, by Zs. Gulácsi, Boston: Brill, 2015, pp.216-220, 358-359, 372-374. The Book of Pictures is likely to be the "Gate Lotus Wing Diagram I, translated from the Second Sect of the Great Sect" as recorded in the Manichaean Buddhist Ritual Rites. One of the thirty-two phases of the Buddha is "swastika on the chest," and this image has three Sogdian letters on the chest.
[3] [De] Le Kirk, translated by Zhao Chongmin, Treasures of Ancient Art in Gaochang-Tubo, Xinjiang People's Publishing House, 1998, pp. 22-23, illustration 15.
[4] Mani's pictures, by Zs. Gulácsi, pp.234-236.
[5] Zs. Gulácsi, “A Visual Sermon on Mani's Teaching of Salvation: a Contextualized Reading of a Chinese Manichaean Silk Painting in the Collection of the Yamato Bunkakan in Nara, Japan,” Studies on the Inner Asian Languages, XXIII, (2008), Plate II, Fig. 2a, b; Plate III, Fig. 3a, b; pp.9-12. Zs. Gulácsi, “A Manichaean Portrait of the Buddha Jesus: Identifying a Twelfth-Thirteenth-century Chinese Painting from the Collection of Seiun-ji Zen Temple,” Artibus Asiae, 69.1 (2009): 112-133, figs. 10-12, 17. 古乐慈着，王媛媛译，《一幅宋代摩尼教〈夷数佛帧〉》，《艺术史研究》，第十辑（2008年），157-160页、图9-11。 Zs. Gulácsi, “Searching for Mani's Picture-book in Textual and Pictorial Sources,” Transcultural Studies, E-Journal of the University of Heidelberg Research Cluster “Asia and Europe in a Global Context,” Thematic issue: Byzantium beyond its Eastern Frontier, 2011: 243-245, Fig.2 & 2b.
[6] Mani's pictures, by Zs. Gulácsi, pp.354-374.
[7] The number of lines is according to Lin Wushu, "Manichaean Chinese Supplement", Lanzhou University Press, 2014, pp. 479-485.
[8] The chapters of the wisdom of my Lord Mani, edited and translated by Iain Gardner, Jason BeDuhn, Paul C. Dilley, Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2018, pp.164-169.
[9] The Cologne Mani codex (P. Colon. inv. nr. 4780): Concerning the origin of his body, translated by Ron Cameron and Arthur J. Dewey, Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1979, pp.36-57. Kephalaion 1, 12:9-25 (I. Gardner, The Kephalaia of the teacher: the edited Coptic Manichaean texts in translation with commentary, Leiden; New York: EJ Brill, 1995, pp.18-20). Prolegomena to a history of Islamicate Manichaeism, by John C. Reeves, Sheffield; Oakville, CT: Equinox Pub., 2011, pp.102-104. WB Henning, “Ein manichäisches Hanochbuch,” Sitzungsberichte der Königl. Preussischen Akademie der Wissenscaften zu Berlin, Philosophisch-Historische Classe (SPAW), 1934, p.28. Mani's pictures, by Zs. Gulácsi, p.356, table 6/5.
[10] P. Dilley, “'Hell Exists, and We Have Seen the Place Where It Is': Rapture and Religions Competition in Sasanian Iran”, Mani at the court of the Persian kings: studies on the Chester Beatty Kephalaia codex, Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2015, pp.211-219.
[11] Max Deeg & I. Gardner, “Indian Influence on Mani Reconsidered the Case of Jainism”, International Journal of Jaina Studies (Online), Vol. 5, No.2 (2009), pp.6-7. The two authors believe that the shamen here may have been a Jain monk.
[12] Mitteliranische manichäische Texte kirchengeschichtlichen Inhalts, by Werner Sundermann, §4b.1, pp.85-88. Werner Sundermann, “Mani, India, and the Manichaean Religion”, South Asian Studies, v.2 (1986), p.14.
[13] KL King, “A Progress Report on the Editing of the Manichaean Synaxeis Codex”, in Actes du IVe Congrès copte: Louvain-la-Neuve, 5-10 septembre 1988, edités par Marguerite Rassart-Debergh et Julien Ries, Louvain-la-Neue: Université catholique de Louvain, 1992, p.287. Most of the Synaxeis scrolls cannot be uncovered, and the uncovered parts have not been fully interpreted, so there are still different views on their nature. Some scholars believe that this is a commentary on the Gospel of Life.
[14] Ibn al-Nadīm, Fihrist (ed. Flügel), Prolegomena to a history of Islamicate Manichaeism, by John C. Reeves, pp.227-228.
[15] H.-J. Klimkeit, Gnosis on the Silk Road, San Francisco, Calif.: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993, pp.274-276.
[16] Ibn al-Nadīm, Fihrist (ed. Flügel), Prolegomena to a history of Islamicate Manichaeism, by John C. Reeves, pp.264-265.
[17] Mary Boyce, A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian, pp.3, 39, 41; 50-52. H.-J. Klimkeit, Gnosis on the Silk Road, pp.203-205, p.218, note 27; pp.259-260.
[18] H.-J. Klimkeit, Gnosis on the Silk Road, pp.261-262. W. Sundermann, “Dīnāvarīya”, Encyclopaedia Iranica, London & New York, 1982-, 7:418-9.
[19] Huang Xinchuan, "The Spread and Influence of Hinduism in China," Studies in Religious Studies, No. 3, 1996, pp. 77-78.
[20] Tipo Bodhisattva Zao, translated by Bodhi Stream Branch, "Devha Bodhisattva Shakyamya Sutra on Thearian Nirvana of the Chinese and Foreign Paths", Taisho Shinshu Dazang Sutra (abbreviated T.), vol. 32 no. 1640,0157b23 or less.
[21] B. Ch. Sastri, “Identification of a Relief belonging to the Gupta Temple at Deogarh”, Acta Orientalia, XII, 1934, PP. 116-25, PL. III.
[22] A. Cunningham, “Coins of the Later Indo-Scythians, Introduction and Later Kushâns”, Numismatic Chronicle, 1893, pp. 126-127, p. X. Fig. 2. https://research.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?assetId=132012001&objectId=225832&partId=1 2020/05/06 Gershman Ghirshman believes that the inscription is Tocharian, including the names of three gods, Mitra, Vishnu, and Shiva. The British Museum website considers the inscription to be Bactrian.
[23] See P. Banerjee, "Brahmanical Gods and Legends from Central Asia", New light on Central Asian art and iconography, New Delhi: Abha Prakashan, 1992, pp.81-107.Yan Yaozhong, "Brahmin Culture in the Xinjiang Section of the Silk Road", "Treatise on the History of Jin and Tang Dynasties", Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2013, pp. 228-240. Yan Yaozhong, "Brahmanism and the Influence of Brahmin Culture in Ancient China", Zhonghua Bookstore, 2019, Chapter 4, Section 5, "The Existence of Brahmanism in the Western Frontier Regions".
[24] BA Litvinsky, Associate Editor, Zhang Guangda, translated by Ma Xiaohe, History of Central Asian Civilizations, Vol. III, UNESCO, 1996, pp. 364-365.
[25] Translated by Buddha Bhadra, Da Fang Guang Fo Hua Yan Sutra, vol. 29, T. vol. 9, no. 0278, 0589c21 below.
[26] Translated by Narentiyyeshe, Dafang et al., vol. 45, t. vol. 13, no. 0397, 0294a28, below.
[27] Yao Xiaoyi, "An Attempt to Describe the Belief in "Naluoyan" in the Wei, Jin, Sui, and Tang Dynasties," Journal of East China Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), No. 2, 2017, p. 86.
[28] Translated by Narenti Yeshe, Dafang et al., vols. 55 and 56, T. vol. 13, No. 0397, 0365c16 below, 0373c14 below.
[29] WB Henning, “Two Manichaean Magical Texts with an Excursus on The Partian ending –ēndēh”, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 1947, pp.47-57. Xu Wenkan and Ma Xiaohe, "A Study of the Manichaean "Great Divine Mantra":Reinterpretation of the Parthian Text M1202," Shi Lin, No. 6, 2004, pp. 96-107.
[30] WB Henning, “The Murder of the Magi”, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1944, pp.137-142.
[31] Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation, by Helmuth von Glasenapp; an English translation of Der Jainismus, eine Indische erlösungsreligion by Shridhar B. Shrotri. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1999. pp.271-274, 285-286.
[32] See Yao Xiaoyi, "An Attempt to Describe the Belief in the "Naluoyan" in the Wei, Jin, Sui, and Tang Dynasties," Journal of East China Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), No. 2, 2017, pp. 79-88+183.
[33] Huang Zhen, Huang's Japanese Banknotes, vol. 86, 9a, Qing Wenyuange Siku Quanshu.
[34] [Song] Zhipan, Chronicles of the Buddha, vol. 48, T. vol. 49, No. 2035, 0431a17, below. Notes on the Chronicles of the Buddha, [Song] Zhipan, Notes on the Interpretation of the Taoist Law, Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2012, Part II, pp. 1143-1144.
[35] Bai Juyi, The Collected Works of Bai Changqing, Song Inscription, vols. 57, 4, 50, 51.
[36] E. Chavannes and P. Pelliot, "Un traité manichéen retrouvé en Chine", Journal Asiatique, 1913, p.337, no.1.
[37] Translated by Kumarosh, Vajrapani Prajnaparamita Sutra, vol. 1, T. vol. 8, no. 0235. 2020/05/14 http://tripitaka.cbeta.org/T08n0235_001
[38] E. Chavannes and P. Pelliot, "Un traité manichéen retrouvé en Chine", Journal Asiatique, 1913, p.334-335, no.1.
[39] As in the Collected Notes, The Number of the Three Tibetan Laws of the Ming Dynasty, vol. 14, Yongle Beizang, vol. 182, No. 1615, 0009a05 and below.
[40] Non-empty translation, Dharajō Vajrayogini True Samadhi Sutra Prajnaparamita Commentary, T. vol. 19, No. 1003.
[41] Lü Jianfu, History of Chinese OccultIsm, China Social Sciences Press, 1995, 266 pp.
[42] Yoshida Akira and Furukawa Tadakaichi, "China's Gangnam Mani Painting Studies", No. 50-51.
[43] Yang Fuxue, "Study of Manichaeism in Xiapu", Zhonghua Bookstore, to be published, 67 pages in electronic edition. Thank you to Mr. Yang Fuxue for sending the electronic version of the manuscript.
[44] An illustrated history of the maṇḍala: from its genesis to the Kālacakratantra, by Kimiaki Tanaka, Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2018, pp.23-27.
[45] Tan Wuchen Translation, The Golden Light Sutra, Vol. 1, T. vol. 16, No. 0663, 0335c17-336b06. See The sūtra of golden light: being a translation of the Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra, by RE Emmerick, London, Luzac, 1970, pp.3-8.
[46] Hiroshi Tomimoto, "A Study of Esoteric Buddhism", Kyoto City: Hozo, 1990, 78-85.
[47] Bodhi Liuzhi translation, "The Sutra of The Divine Transformation of the Immortals", vol. 9, T. vol. 20, No. 1092, 0269c20 and below. Some of the descriptions of the mandala in the Chinese translation of this sutra are not found in the Sanskrit and Tibetan texts and may have been added later.
[48] Goodness and Fearlessness, One Line, Great Vishnu Buddhahood Sutra, Vol. V, T. Vol. 18, No. 0848, 0036c01 below.
[49] Translated by Bodhi Liuzhi, One-Character Buddha's Sutra of the Wheel of the King, Vol. IV, T. Vol. 19, No. 0951, 0246c24
[50] The Great Vishnu Sutra on the Transformation of the Buddha, Vol. 1, T. vol. 18, No. 0848, 0006b09 and below. The Great Nikkei is called the Second House, and the Great Nikkei Shu says: Although the second house is actually the third house, "the second house" is a metaphor. See Hou Huiming, "A Study of the Fetal Tibetan Mandala", Doctoral Dissertation of Shaanxi Normal University, 2010, 131 pp.
[51] A Book of One Line, The Great Vishnu Sutra, Vol. V, T. vol. 39, No. 1796, 0633c29 below.
[52] Vajrapani translation, "Skimming the Chanting Sutra in Vajrayogini Yoga", vol. 1, T. vol. 18, No. 0866, 0227b14 below.
[53] https://library-artstor-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/#/asset/HARVARD_UNIVERSITY_94912492481;prevRouteTS=1589559101644
The arts of Central Asia: the Pelliot collection in the Musée Guimet, general editor, Jacques Giès; translated by Hero Friesen; in collaboration with Roderick Whitfield, London: Serindia Publications, 1996, v.1, pl.46 (pp.69-70). Yin Guangming, "The Transformation of the Images of the Five Buddhas of Dunhuang Xianmi and the Thought of the Dharma Body", Dunhuang Studies, No. 1, 2014, pp. 18-19, Figure 9.
The 11th-12th century "Sum-tsek" (Sum-tsek) of the upper Indus Alchi (Ladakh) has five frescoes on the first floor. Klinget believed that it could be explained in Buddhism or in Manichaeism. Manichaean art and calligraphy, by Hans-Joachim Klimkeit, Leiden: Brill, 1982, pp.32-33. See Yang Fuxue, Kasumigaura Manichaean Studies, p. 67.
[54] Translated by Shi Hu, "The Buddha Says Everything As It Is True Mahayana Sutra of the Samadhi Teachings," vol. 10, T. vol. 18, No. 0882, 0373a09 below.
[55] Dang Zhuo, "A Study of Yogic Esoteric Deities: Centered on the Mandala Deities of the Vajrapani Realm," Doctoral Dissertation, Shaanxi Normal University, 2014, p. 256.
[56] Larry V. Clark, “Manichaean Turkic Pothi-book,” Altorientalische Forschungen, vol.9, 1982, pp.159-160, 170, 175, 183, 188, 196-197, 204. Clark believes that the "Four Buddhas" could be Seth, Suluchi, Shakyamuni, and Yishu. Yang Fuxue, Kasumiura Manichaean Studies, pp. 375-376.
[57] G. Kósa, “The Qing Corpus of Manichaean Texts from Fujian,” pp.18, Ming Qing Studies, forthcoming. Thank you to Mr. Kang Gaobao for sending the original manuscript to the author for reference before the publication of the paper.
[58] 参阅Gábor Kósa, “The Manichaean 'New Paradise' in Text and Image”, Crossroads: Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World, vol. 13 (2016), pp.87-90. https://www.academia.edu/30438054/_The_Manichaean_New_Paradise_in_Text_and_Image._Crossroads_Studies_on_the_History_of_Exchange_Relations_in_the_East_Asia_World_13_2016_27_113 Gulácsi thinks that the central seated god is Third Messenger who is surrounded by 12 Virgins of Light. Gulácsi, Mani's Pictures, Figure 6/38, pp.447-450.
[59] Guleci believed that the three gods in the snake cage were Zoroastrian, Buddha, and Jesus. Mani's pictures, by Zs. Gulácsi, pp.438-481, FIGURE 6/36-46.
The original article was published in the International Sinology Research Newsletter, No. 21