David Abrafia
Ever since Edward Gibbon wrote A History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, the question of why, when, and whether the great Roman Empire declined has been the subject of tireless discussion by historians. At least two hundred and ten explanations have been proposed, and some of them ("Semiticization," the homosexuality problem, the decline in masculinity) are frankly absurd. The idea that barbarian invasions destroyed Rome— both the city and the Roman Empire— was no longer popular and was once again revered. Some historians insist that the "decline of Rome" itself is a false proposition, emphasizing the continuity of the Roman tradition.
However, from a Mediterranean perspective, it is very clear that this great sea had split by 800 AD. This process of disintegration lasted for centuries and left several suspects: the Germanic barbarians of the 5th century and beyond, the Arab conquerors of the 7th century, Charlemagne and his Frankish armies in the 8th century, and infighting—the generals of the Roman Empire fought for power, some for local territories, some for the throne. It is clear that rome's decline was not caused by "some reason" alone, but by the accumulation of countless problems that led to the end of the old system.
Prosperous and peaceful North Africa
During the long years from 400 to 800 AD, the Mediterranean sea was economically and politically divided: the Roman emperors realized that the task of dominating the region around the Mediterranean, as well as large tracts of land on the European continent west of the Rhine and south of the Danube River, was far beyond the reach of one person. Thus, Diocletian, who had ruled from 284 onwards, based in Nicomedia in the east, handed over the administration of the empire to a team of co-ruling emperors, the first of whom was another "Augustus" in the west, and later from 293 to 305 two more vice-emperors or "Caesars" were appointed, a system known as the "Four Emperors Co-Rule". Diocletian's station in Nicomedia was itself a prelude to the later establishment of the "New Rome" by Constantine in 330; Constantine had examined the ruins of Troy, a city that the Romans considered their place of origin, but later chose byzantium, the commercial center, which had excellent ports and important strategic locations, and was located on the main commercial route connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean Sea. Another striking change, of course, was Constantine's formal recognition of the legitimacy of Christianity, which had been an underground religion for centuries before.
In 476 AD, the last emperor of Western Rome, the "Little Emperor" named Romulus, was deposed by the Germanic military leader Odoac. Until then, Italy was still the seat of the Western Roman Emperor, but the center of power had shifted eastward, a change that was precisely an adaptation to the realities of economic development in the Mediterranean. In the East, the commercial world of the Hellenistic and Ptolemaic periods still flourished, centered on the busy ports of Alexandria, Gaza and Ephesus, linked by trade and a common Greek culture. The emphasis on the opposition between the urban-dominated East and the rural-based West would be oversimplified, as the main population in the east was still peasants and pastoralists, and the densely packed townships and diverse agricultural production along the eastern Mediterranean coast created a more complex economy. Contemporary people can still see the exquisite Egyptian fabrics of the late Roman Empire in museums; a large number of luxury goods were circulating in eastern Sicily at that time. The way more everyday goods are supplied has changed. One of the influences of the establishment of Constantinople was the shift of the destination of Egyptian grain from Old Rome to New Rome. At 330, this seemed like a harmless change. In any case, two-thirds of Rome's needs for grain were supplied by Africa. It was a prosperous era, when Carthage had become the third largest city in the Mediterranean after Rome and Alexandria. If the empire's population may have been drastically reduced by epidemics in the late 3rd to 4th centuries, the agricultural production capacity of the North African provinces could continue to supply the Western Roman capitals. The elders and knights of Rome and Carthage expanded their estates in Africa. The hereditary guilds of shipowners were protected by the Empire, and their members enjoyed the privilege of tax reduction and were given knighthood status. Although the Imperial Treasury did not directly interfere in the management of the Shipowners Guild, its protection of the Shipowners ensured that the Grain Route remained active. Farmers in Africa also grow olive and vines for income, and Africa prospers by exporting olive oil and wine to Italy and other regions. African terracotta has not only become the main pottery in the Mediterranean, but has also penetrated deep into the interior of Gaul and even Britain. The returning ship brought back Italian bricks. This is certainly not because Africans don't make bricks, but because grain merchant ship crews need to use bricks to ballast after unloading the grain. This was the golden age of Africa, especially Carthage. The city was well-laid out, criss-crossed with streets, and beautiful architecture—the Carthaginians were particularly fond of their Colosseum, and even the threat of barbarian invasion could not interrupt their enthusiasm for such entertainment. The Carthaginians were proud of their port, as the circular port of ancient Carthage was rebuilt and a beautiful hexagonal outer port was built during the Trajan period. This port, together with port Portus, built by the Emperor near Ostia, formed the Twin Ports, and the outline of the "Punic Port" is still faintly visible today.
Africa is also a place of peace. From the 3rd century onwards, the border areas far from the center of the empire were constantly invaded by barbarians. In distant Britain, the "Counts of the Saxon Coast" organized a defensive line against Germanic invaders who had crossed the North Sea. Around 400, hordes of Gothic, Suvihui, and other Germanic tribes invaded Gaul, Italy, and Spain, and the city of Rome was looted in 410, but even at the time of these disasters, Africa seemed very safe. The Afrikaner scholar Augustine, who later became bishop of Hippo and died in 430, was shocked by the robbery of Rome and, under such stimulus, wrote his monumental city of God. In the book, he describes a heavenly "city" that is far superior to the fragile earthly city and the Roman Empire. At least Hippo and Carthage, however, seem to have been protected by the ocean. It was known that barbarians were good soldiers, but not good sailors. The Goths were confined to Italy and could not even cross the Gulf of Calabria to Sicily. The other barbarians, the Vandals and Alains, headed west into the mountains of Spain. It's hard to say what threat they might pose by doing so.
The Vandals came
The Vandals belonged to the Germanic peoples, who lived somewhere in what is today southern Poland, and like most barbarians embraced Alyusian Christianity, whose doctrine held that the Son and the Father were not of the same sex, nor were they equally immortal, but that the Son was made of the Father. Later the word "vandalism" became synonymous with destruction, but it was only coined in 1794 AD by a French bishop who felt deep despair at the destruction caused by the revolutionaries. To be sure, the Vandals were happy to see their possessions gradually increase, so the Vandal kings were extremely reluctant to use their accumulated gold and silver for economic development – a process economists called "hoarding". In contrast, the Alans originated in the Caucasus and migrated from there to southeastern Europe, their language belongs to the Iranian language family, and their customs are far from those of the Vandals, for example, they do not own slaves. These seemingly incongruous allies entered and divided Spain together, but in 416 they were attacked and massacred by the Gothic military leader Valia, who was short-lived under the banner of the newly formed Gothic-Roman Alliance. These barbarians attacked each other much more frequently than they invaded the Romans. It is said that the Vandals living in Betika, which is today Andalusia, were wiped out. But after this fiasco, survivors must find other lands to live in. Their purpose is to conquer and settle down, not to plunder and disappear. This time they chose Africa, a decision that seemed logical because it was closest to them. In the summer of 429, under the leadership of their lame and ruthless king, Gesarik, they crossed the Strait of Gibraltar.
Tingittana around Tangier was administered by Spain, which was Roman land but was effectively controlled by mauritanian kings, who generally maintained friendly relations with Rome cautiously. Compared to the rest of North Africa, it was less valuable to Rome, and Rome was more satisfied with this loose alliance. Similarly, Gesarik's interest lies in controlling the richest regions of Africa. Located in a land of gods, Carthage has abundant wheat fields and olive groves, and looks richer than southern Spain. Gesarik needed to send 180,000 soldiers, women and children to the other side of the channel (this number is an exaggeration to say that the Vandals of Betika were almost annihilated), but he had no boats, and the ships ferrying in the sea could carry up to seventy people. If he could really raise hundreds of such small boats, it would take his men about a month to cross the strait. But one question he still has to solve is where to go to raise so many ships. The route taken by Geisarik was from the Atlantic side across the Strait of Gibraltar, from Tarifa, the southernmost tip of Spain, to the beaches between Tangier and Ceuta. It's a short voyage, but even in summer, the waters traveled are quite dangerous. After a series of round-trips, Geisarik finally brought the Vandals and Alans to Tingitana, but instead of staying in Tingitana for long, they crossed the land eastward and, after a three-month trek, reached Hippo in May or June 430 AD. Hippo resisted for fourteen months, because the Vandals were not good at siege warfare and Hippo's Roman walls were relatively strong. Such Roman walls are a good example of the foresight of the Romans, as the city's defenses were easily overlooked after a long period of "peace under the roman empire". Among those who looked out in the city was Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, who fled during the siege. He could reflect on the devastation that had previously been inflicted on Rome by the heretical barbarians, which now threatened his province.
The map of the Mediterranean that was radically altered
After the fall of Hippo, new Alieus canons were established, and nearly five hundred archduches were expelled from their usually smaller bishoprics for following the position of the Council of Nicea. This marked the end of the Arius's tolerance of the Catholic Church. Carthage was conquered, but Geisalek was patient in the process: the city fell in 439 AD, by which time all the areas around Carthage had fallen into Vandal hands. Carthage became the new capital of the Vandal kingdom. However, the Vandals of Africa were not spoilers, and most of the ancient traditions and orders were inherited by them. Gesarik realized that he could not just command his subjects, not just as his official title, "King of the Vandals and Arans," described. In 442, the Vandals concluded a peace treaty with the Romans, which stipulated that the Vandal king would be responsible for the rule of the entire region. Although Geisarik hoarded large amounts of looted gold in the treasury, there is no evidence that Vandal rule caused economic decline. New construction works were underway; merchants from the East came to Carthage with Byzantine currency; North African merchants continued to do business in the East; and Carthage's beautiful harbor was repaired. During vandal rule, the number of eastern Mediterranean amphoras exported to Carthage increased significantly. The Carthaginians also used locally produced terracotta to eat. The fact that grain in North Africa was no longer expropriated to supply Rome, but was run by local merchants, which boosted the economy. The Vandals loved oriental silk, baths, banquets and theatre, and boating. They sponsored the creation of Roman poets, who were romanized like the Goths living in Italy, who also began to glorify their ruling centers in Ravenna. Although Latin and the less widely spoken Punic language were the lingua franca of Africa, the Vandals, like the Goths, retained their Germanic names from generation to generation. The Vandal conquest did not disturb life in the countryside, as evidenced by the wooden estate record boards found in the Vandal ruling center, which were called Albertini record boards. In fact, the ancient system is not only not on the verge of collapse, but is full of vitality and energy. The Romans, Punics and Moors of northwest africa supplied the Vandals by sea to sustain the Vandal kingdom. Ships were used for trade and also needed to transport troops when the situation changed. In 533, King Galimer of vandal sent one hundred and twenty-two ships of his possession to Sardinia to suppress the rebellion of the governor of the island. The Vandals did not build warships of the traditional style; when they crossed the sea to conquer other places, the ships only played the role of transporting horses and weapons.
The Vandal kingdom extended far beyond the provinces of Afrikaner during the Roman Empire. Long before invading Afrika, the Vandals had sent troops to attack the Balearic Islands; in 455 AD, they formally annexed the islands. The assassination of the incompetent Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III in 454, the assassination of the illustrious Roman general Aetius in 454 provided new opportunities for the Vandals. In June 455, the Vandals embarked on a very bold expedition, and the army was sent to Rome. The expedition was not an Aleus jihad against the Catholic Church, but a plunder: the Vandals were instructed not to destroy, not to massacre, but only to look for treasures, especially those of the emperor. They returned with a generous spoil of war, including a considerable number of slaves (they handled slaves mercilessly, directly separating husband and wife, parents, and children). According to some records, the treasures they plundered included the candelabras that Titus had plundered from the temple in Jerusalem and various other gold objects, which were kept in Carthage as spoils of war until the Byzantines recaptured the city in 534. Geisalic also seized Corsica in 455 or 456 as a source of wood for his shipbuilding industry, while the exiled bishops of the Archduches were forced to cut down wood on the island. At the same time, the Vandals conquered Sardinia, but they lost it around 468 and did not recover it until around 482. They settled on the island and lived with the Moors who came from Africa, who were called "barbarians", hence the name Balbagia in the deserted mountains of northeastern Sardinia. The Vandals did not hesitate to conquer Sicily, launching relentless attacks on the Sicily Strait from 440 onwards, followed by year after year after year of plundering the island from 461 or 462 onwards. They also succeeded in weakening Roman control of Sicily, but shortly before The Death of Gesarik (who finally died in 477 after half a century of various conquests), the Vandals made an agreement with the Germanic general Odoac. Oddocchi deposed the last emperor of Western Rome a few months ago and now rules as King of Italy. Odoak paid tribute to the Vandals for Sicily, but only handed over the western headlands near Marsala to the Direct Vandals. Nevertheless, it seemed at this point that the Vandals were about to pocket all three granaries in the western Mediterranean— Afrika, Sicily and Sardinia. At the end of Gesarik's rule, the Vandals, feeling that they had gained enough from Sicily and Italy, began to invade the coasts of Greece and Dalmatians, ravaging Zakynthos in the Ionian archipelago.
The sea empire created by the Vandals is extremely personal. There is no evidence that they supported piracy on the high seas, and their king did not have much interest in commerce. They knew very well that in controlling the barns of the Empire, they were tantamount to choking the throat of Rome. The Vandal involvement in grain transportation intensified and even led directly to the Italian famine that occurred around 450 AD. They did not clash with the fleets of the Roman Empire, as naval warfare of that type was rare at the time. The pinnacle of the Vandal Empire was the reign of its founder, Gesarik, who remained a powerful force for the sixty years after his death in 477. By 500, the Ostrogoths of The Arlius ruled Italy, the Vandals of the Alius dominated North Africa, and the Visigoths of the Alius ruled Spain and southern Gaul. In the century and a half after the founding of New Rome, the political, ethnic and religious map of the Mediterranean underwent radical changes. A split is happening.
This article is excerpted from "The Great Sea: A History of Mankind in the Mediterranean", translated by David Abrafia, Xu Jialing, et al., Oracle, Social Science Literature Publishing House, July 2018, reprinted by China Business Daily with permission