When I was very young, I remember a metaphor, a special image: the territory of the Qing Dynasty was shaped like a leaf, while the Japanese shape was like a worm, specifically to eat leaves. With the independence of Outer Mongolia, the leaf-shaped territory became the shape of the current rooster. So, how did Outer Mongolia break away from China step by step and become an independent country?
Today we will start from scratch, from the beginning, starting from the Qing Dynasty.
During the Qing Dynasty:
During this period, there was no such thing as "Outer Mongolia" or "Inner Mongolia". During the Qing Dynasty, the "Inner Mongolia" area was the Qing Dynasty's "Desert South Mongolia", and "Outer Mongolia" was called "Desert North Mongolia". The loyalty and intimacy of these two regions to the Central Plains regime is inversely proportional to their distance from the Central Plains regime. The Mongols in the southern Mongolian region, who had been subordinate to the Manchu regime since nurhaci's post-Jin dynasty, had been married to the Manchu nobles very early, and the two sides were also long-term allies, and they had always followed the Manchu regime. Therefore, after the establishment of the Qing Dynasty, they were very close to the Qing Dynasty and very loyal, often fighting side by side with the Qing army, conquering the East and the West, and fighting in blood.
The Northern Mongols, on the other hand, were forced to defect to the Qing Dynasty in the 27th year of the Kangxi Dynasty (1688) to escape the expansion and rebellion of the Dzungars and request their annexation. In order to win over this part of the Mongolian nobles, the Qing Dynasty granted the Mongolian nobles noble titles and allowed them to manage the tribes on their own, and the officials sent by the government were more representatives of the central government, co-opting the upper echelons and not intervening in the specific management. Therefore, from the very beginning, Northern Mongolia had greater autonomy and independence. The aristocratic class of Northern Mongolia, because of the protection and respect for their interests, was also happy to live freely under the shadow of the central government.
This kind of relationship between the Qing government and northern Mongolia, when the central government was strong, was naturally quiet and peaceful. However, at the end of the Qing Dynasty, internal and external troubles, wars raged on the horizon, and land was cut off to pay compensation, resulting in an empty treasury and a waste of military strength. At this time, in order to pay foreign reparations, the Qing government tried to change the high degree of autonomy of northern Mongolia to a provincial system, in order to increase some fiscal revenue. This must have touched the vital interests of the Mongol nobility, because it was to rob the Mongolian nobility of money. Naturally, it aroused strong resistance from a considerable number of Mongolian nobles, and the idea of independence from the Qing Dynasty spread.
At this stage, in order to occupy the Far East, Russia has also been co-opting the aristocratic class of northern Mongolia and supporting separatist forces.
By the year before Xuantong abdicated, the Qing government itself was already in turmoil and precarious. In October 1911, the Xinhai Revolution broke out, and taking advantage of this opportunity, on December 1, 1911, the princes, nobles and senior lamas of Northern Mongolia, with the support of Tsarist Russia, declared "independence" at Kulun (Ulaanbaatar), established the "Great Mongolian State", and established the eighth Jebtsundamba Hutuktu to ascend the throne, known as the "Sun emperor" or "Bok do khan", with the era name "Common Wear".
On February 12, 1912 (December 25, the third year of Xuan unification), the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty, Ai Xinjueluo Puyi, issued an abdication edict, and the Qing Dynasty officially collapsed. The Xinhai Revolution was victorious. Chinese history entered the period of the Republic of China.
Republic of China period:
According to the Qing government's "Edict of Abdication", the Republic of China inherited all the territory of the Qing Dynasty, and northern Mongolia was naturally included in the territory of the Republic of China. The "Great Mongolian State" tried to communicate with Yuan Shikai and seek recognition of independence by the Republic of China government, and Yuan Shikai replied: "The independence of Kulun was not allowed by the former Qing Dynasty, and the Republic of China did not have any reason to allow it", asking them to "cancel independence at an instant".
Although the government of the Republic of China had a tough attitude, the country was still turbulent and unable to conquest, and could only resolutely refuse to admit it. At this time, the "Great Mongolian State" relied on the large amount of economic and military assistance from Tsarist Russia, insisted on its independence, and even expanded its ambitions, trying to win over the common independence of inner Mongolia, and once attacked Hohhot in 1914.
At this time, the international and domestic situations are all turbulent and rapidly changing.
In 1915, when World War I broke out, Tsarist Russia was crumbling under the blows of France, and in order to stabilize the rear as soon as possible, it signed the "Sino-Russian-Mongolian Entente" with China, recognizing China's suzerainty over Foreign Mongolia, which is China's territory, adopts the Republic of China era, and still has a "high degree of autonomy."
In 1919, the October Revolution broke out, Tsarist Russia collapsed, and the Soviet Union was founded. The civil war in the Soviet Union was fierce, and no one paid attention to Outer Mongolia. As a result, some princes in northern Mongolia went to the Beiyang government, hoping to "restore the former Qing system." The president at this time is Xu Shichang, and he will naturally laugh at the good things sent to the door. Therefore, the Beiyang government announced the abolition of the Sino-Russian-Mongolian Entente, the abolition of outer Mongolia autonomy (abolition), and the establishment of the "Northwest Frontier Mission Office of the Republic of China." Xu Shuzheng was sent to lead the First Division of the Northwest Frontier Defense Army into Outer Mongolia, defeated several armed forces of princes who insisted on independence, captured several "living Buddhas" alive, and recovered the Tangnu Wuliang Sea.
After Xu Shuzheng entered Outer Mongolia, he tried to control the situation through strong suppression. However, the domestic situation changed again, and in 1920, the Zhiwan War broke out, and Xu Shuzheng led the main force to withdraw to participate in the war. Relying on the strength of the old Russian officers, the independence faction rebelled again, and the Beiyang Army that remained in Outer Mongolia was only 3,000 people, unable to control the situation, and retreated to Inner Mongolia, and Outer Mongolia once again declared its independence.
After that, the Beiyang government was too busy dealing with the warlord melee to be unable to conquer Outer Mongolia.
By May 1924, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party in Outer Mongolia took over power, the "Greater Mongolia" became the "Mongolian People's Republic", and Kulun changed its name to Ulaanbaatar. The new regime completely copied the Soviet system, allowing the Soviet Union to station troops.
At this time, the Chinese government, with warlords fighting among themselves and Japanese occupation of the three eastern provinces, was really helpless except to repeatedly reiterate that it would not recognize Mongolian independence.
This situation continued until the end of World War II, and Outer Mongolia also ushered in an irreversible turning point in fate.
On June 30, 1945, Song Ziwen, president of the Executive Yuan of the National Government, arrived in Moscow with Chiang Kai-shek's handwritten letter in order to discuss the signing of the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, and there was no room for the Outer Mongolia issue to turn around.
Song Ziwen successively proposed "temporary suspension" and "a high degree of autonomy" in an attempt to delay, but Stalin sternly refused, saying that for the safety of the main artery of the Trans-Siberian Railway, that is, the security of the Soviet Far East, he would not make the slightest concession. In order to win the Soviet Union to send troops to the northeast as soon as possible, Chiang Kai-shek finally had to accept Stalin's plan, and the terms of "independence" of Outer Mongolia were written into the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance.
The treaty provided that the Government of the Republic of China allowed and would decide on the independence of Outer Mongolia on the basis of the results of a fair referendum. On 20 October, the people of Outer Mongolia held a referendum under the surveillance and control of the Outer Mongolian authorities and the Soviet Union, which showed that 97.8% of the citizens were in favour of Outer Mongolia's independence.
In this way, Outer Mongolia, which once belonged to China, completed all procedures and completely broke away from China's territory, and the Nationalist government was finally forced to formally recognize the independence of Outer Mongolia on January 5, 1946. At this point, Outer Mongolia has no possibility of recovery.
Period of the People's Republic of China:
Before and after the founding of New China, it was always hoped to recover Outer Mongolia or negotiate with the Soviet Union on the issue of Outer Mongolia independence and strive to recover it. Stalin then telegraphed: "The leaders of Outer Mongolia advocate the unification of all Mongolian areas in China with Outer Mongolia in accordance with the principle of an independent and unified Mongolian state. The Soviet government expressed its opposition to this plan ... Even if all the Mongol regions were unified into one autonomous region, Outer Mongolia would not give up its independence and exercise autonomy within the territory of China. Naturally, the decision on this matter belongs to Wai Meng himself. "This is actually a warning that if the independence of Outer Mongolia is not recognized, Outer Mongolia will advocate merging with Inner Mongolia and becoming independent!"
In 1950, when Zhou Enlai proposed in talks with Stalin that "China is ready to issue a statement on the status of the Mongolian People's Republic," Stalin immediately tensed up, "Hasn't the Mongolian problem been settled long ago?" There is no problem, what is there to declare?! "No consultations on the issue of Outer Mongolia are allowed at all.
On February 14, 1950, New China and the Soviet Union signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, and issued the Proclamation on the Conclusion of Treaties and Agreements between the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, which read: "The governments of both sides have confirmed the independent status of the Mongolian People's Republic and have been fully guaranteed by its 1945 referendum and the establishment of diplomatic relations between the People's Republic of China."
Mongolia's separation from China was formed step by step during China's chaotic era of poverty and weakness for more than a hundred years. This is the end of the matter, irreparable. What we can do now is to strive to promote the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, and only a strong motherland can have a complete mountain and river!