Editor's note: The United States has been at war for more than 200 of its 240 years of existence. Between the end of WW2 and 9/11 – barely 50 years – the U.S. initiated 201 conflicts that ravaged 153 countries and regions. "America: War by another name" is a special eight-part series that explores the sinister motivations for its warmongering. Episode 2 is about the lies that shore up America's imperial ambition.
挑起白人的負擔/把你們最優秀的品種送出去/
捆綁起你們的孩子,将其放逐/去替你們的奴隸服務
挑起白人的負擔/讓他們背負着沉重的馬缰
去伺候那些剛被抓到/又急躁又野蠻，又愠怒
一半像惡魔一半像孩子一樣的人們
挑起白人的負擔/堅持着耐心,掩飾起恐懼/
用公開與簡易的語言,不厭其煩地說明/
去替别人謀福利,去為别人争利益
——[英]魯德亞德•吉蔔林（Rudyard Kipling）：《白人的負擔》（The White Man’s Burden）
Take up the White Man's burden—
Send forth the best ye breed—
Go send your sons to exile
To serve your captives' need
To wait in heavy harness
On fluttered folk and wild—
Your new-caught, sullen peoples,
Half devil and half child
Take up the White Man's burden
In patience to abide
To veil the threat of terror
And check the show of pride;
By open speech and simple
An hundred times made plain
To seek another's profit
And work another's gain
Rudyard Kipling, The White Man's Burden
1899年，英國詩人魯德亞德•吉蔔林在當時的流行雜志上發表了這首極具帝國主義和種族主義色彩的詩歌。詩歌原題為《美國與菲律賓群島》，是詩人有感于美西戰争之後的菲律賓問題而寫。在那個資本瘋狂進行海外擴張的時代，美國這個年輕的資本主義國家毫不例外地對外擴張，開啟了自己的帝國之路。美西戰争則是這條道路之始端，使之從一個地方大國向着全球大國的方向邁進。
This poem, carrying a strong imperialist and colonialist undertone, was published in a popular magazine in 1899 by British poet Rudyard Kipling. Originally titled "The United States and the Philippine Islands," it was a piece on the Philippine issue after the Spanish-American War. That was an era of frantic overseas capitalist expansion, and America, a young capitalist state back then, unsurprisingly jumped on the bandwagon. With the Spanish-American War as the starting point, the U.S. embarked on an imperialist path that would lead to its transformation from a regional to a global power.
乍看之下，美國的帝國之路并不像老牌殖民帝國的擴張之路那樣充滿血腥，多是通過購買、兼并或協定轉讓的方式來實作海外擴張。這是因為，作為一個誕生于反殖民主義鬥争的“共和國”，美國拒絕承認自己的“殖民主義”曆史。是以，在涉及到海外領土時，曆史學家通常隻談論正式收購，以避免擴張主義在美國曆史上占據的核心地位。但事實上，美國的帝國之路并不陽光明媚，而是用謊言、背叛與血淚鋪就而成。
On the surface, America's imperialist expansion, seemingly not as bloody as that of established colonial empires, was mostly realized through purchases, annexations and contractual transfers. This is because as a "republic" born out of anti-colonialism struggles, America refuses to admit that it has a "colonialist" history of outward expansion. So when it comes to its overseas territories, historians usually only mention formal purchases to sideline the role of expansionism in American history. However, America's imperial journey was by no means peaceful and rosy, but full of lies, betrayal, blood and tears.
1898年，正處壯年的美國忙于對外擴張商業利益，意欲在國際政治舞台上尋求更多的話語權和更大的國際市場。當時，世界基本已經被老牌殖民帝國瓜分完畢，新興的殖民帝國隻好與老牌帝國争奪。而此時日薄西山的西班牙就成為了可輕易被征服的對象。為了奪取西班牙的美洲殖民地以控制加勒比海地區，美國以“支援古巴人民獨立”為由開啟了美西戰争。
In 1898, the U.S. in its prime was busy expanding its commercial interests, with the aim of getting a bigger voice on the global political stage and finding a larger global market. By then, the world was almost carved up by established colonial powers – the U.S. as a newcomer had no option but to compete for colonies. Spain, at the time an empire on the decline, became an easy target. To seize Spanish colonies in Americas and subsequently gain control over the Caribbean, the U.S. started the Spanish-American War in the name of "supporting the independence of the Cuban people."
“支援古巴人民獨立”不過是個美麗的謊言。鑒于古巴戰略地位及其對美國商業的重要性，美國長期以來都在觊觎古巴，并希望将其吞并。正如約翰•亞當斯在1823年所言，“将古巴并入聯邦共和國對于聯邦本身的延續和完整是必不可少的。”——這是一個難以抗拒的信念，也成為美國長久的政策共識。當時，西班牙已經日漸衰落，難以應對來自古巴和菲律賓等殖民地的起義。美國企圖通過對西班牙宣戰，奪取起義軍的勝利果實，進而瓜分西班牙的殖民地。
That mantra was a beautifully crafted lie. Considering Cuba's strategic location and commercial significance, America had long been coveting the country, hoping to annex it. Just as John Adams put it in 1823, "the annexation of Cuba to our federal republic will be indispensable to the continuance and integrity of the Union itself."
It started as an irresistible belief and gradually became America's long-term policy consensus. Spain back then was already on a downward slope and could hardly handle uprisings in its colonies such as Cuba and the Philippines. Seeing this as an opportunity, America waged war against Spain in an attempt to seize what the rebellions had achieved and snatch away Spanish colonies.
美西戰争結束後，美國繼承了西班牙成為古巴利益“保護者”的角色，在政治、精神與道德上“對古巴人民的福祉負責”。自1899年至1902年，美國一直對古巴實行軍事占領，直至古巴人接受《普拉特修正案》并将其納入古巴憲法，成為永久條約。《普拉特修正案》實際上賦予美國幹預古巴内政的合法性，幫助實作了美國對古巴的“合法統治”。修正案禁止古巴政府簽署任何會損害古巴獨立或允許外國勢力将該島用于軍事目的的國際條約，并承認美國具備幹預古巴事務以捍衛古巴獨立和維持“足以保護生命、财産和個人自由的政府”的權利。此後，美國通過限制古巴貿易，禁止古巴自産多種産品，強迫其從美國進口産品，使之成為自身商品的傾銷地。
After the war, the U.S. replaced Spain to "protect" Cuba, and became politically and morally "responsible for the wellbeing of the Cuban people." Between 1899 and 1902, the U.S. militarily occupied Cuba, and only withdrew its troops after the latter accepted the Platt Amendment and included it into the Constitution.
The Amendment legitimized both America's regular intervention in Cuba's internal affairs and its rule over the island. It barred the government of Cuba from entering into any international treaty that would impair the independence of the country or authorizing any foreign power to use the island for military purposes, and recognized the right of the U.S. to interfere in Cuba's affairs "for the preservation of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property, and individual liberty."
Following the amendment, Washington, through trade restrictions, prohibited the island from domestically producing a number of goods to ensure that they were imported from the U.S., turning the island into a dumping ground for American products.
如果說美國對古巴的“占領”是用謊言換取的，那麼其對菲律賓的“殖民”則充滿着背叛與血淚。戰争初期，美國政府承諾與菲律賓起義軍政府建立聯盟，共同對抗西班牙，并保證一旦戰争結束，菲律賓人将獲得獨立。美國海軍進行海上封鎖并為菲律賓起義的領袖埃米利奧•阿奎納多（Emilio Aguinaldo）提供武器，由阿奎納多驅逐西班牙人。是以，對菲律賓的起義軍來說，美軍的到來是令人振奮的。當時，阿奎納多（Emilio Aguinaldo）說，“美國人不是出于雇傭軍的動機，而是為了人類和衆多受害者的悲痛，決定将他們的保護擴充到我們心愛的國家，”“在你看到美國國旗飄揚的地方，人們聚集在一起；他們是我們的救贖者！” 1898 年 6 月，阿奎納多建立政府并發表獨立宣言：“在強大的人道主義國家美利堅合衆國的保護下，我們在此以菲律賓島人民的名義莊嚴宣布——菲律賓人有權并且已經獲得自由和獨立。”
While America's occupation of Cuba was gained via lies, its colonization of the Philippines was fraught with betrayal, blood and tears. At the onset of the Spanish-American War, Washington offered to ally with the Filipino rebels and promised that the country would gain independence once the war ended. The U.S. navy built a blockade on the sea and provided weapons for the leader of the rebellion Emilio Aguinaldo, who was in charge of ousting the Spanish.
Therefore, for the Filipino rebel army, the arrival of the Americans was exciting news. Aguinaldo once said, "The Americans, not from mercenary motives, but for the sake of humanity and the lamentations of so many persecuted people, have considered it opportune to extend their protecting mantle to our beloved country." "There where you see the American flag flying, assemble in number; they are our redeemers!"
In June 1898, Aguinaldo established a government and declared the independence of the Filipinos and the birth of the Philippine Republic "under the protection of the mighty and humane North American Union."
但菲律賓起義軍很快就被他們的“救贖者”所抛棄。1898年8月，在西班牙單獨向美國投降時，美國撕下了人道主義的假面，轉身背叛了曾經的“戰友”，将菲律賓起義軍封鎖在馬尼拉城外。美國總統麥金萊發表聲明稱“不會與叛亂分子聯合占領”，要求菲律賓人“必須承認美國的軍事占領和權威”。
But the rebel army was soon ditched by their "redeemers." In August 1889, after Spain's surrender, the U.S. removed its humanitarian mask and betrayed its former "ally," preventing Filipino forces from entering the captured city of Manila. The then American President William McKinley said in a statement that the U.S. would not seek joint occupation with the rebels and that the Filipinos must recognize the American occupation and authority.
1899年2月，菲律賓共和軍反抗美國的占領，雙方爆發戰争，直至1902年結束。美軍的占領遇到當地群眾的自發反抗。1901年，菲律賓中部薩馬島巴蘭吉加的500多名村名自發反抗打死了48名美軍。作為報複，美軍對巴蘭吉加鎮進行大屠殺，要求士兵殺死當地“所有10歲以上以及可以拿起武器的男人”，約有2500人在屠殺中遇害，包括婦女和兒童。此外，美軍對摩洛村民的大屠殺更是令美國曆史上的任何一次大屠殺都相形見绌。當時，約有800至1000人被殺，包括婦女和兒童，隻有6人幸存，緻死率達99%。馬克•吐溫對此諷刺道，“我們徹底消滅了他們，連一個能夠為死去母親哭泣的嬰兒都沒有留下……這是美國基督教士兵所取得的無與倫比的偉大勝利”。
In February 1899, a war broke out between the U.S. and the Philippine Revolutionary Army in resistance to the occupation, and lasted until 1902. In 1901, over 500 villagers in the town of Balangiga on the central Philippine island of Samar rose up against U.S. occupation and killed 48 American soldiers. To retaliate, the U.S. army committed a massacre in the town with an order from the general to kill any Filipino male over 10 who could wield a weapon. Approximately 2,500 people including women and children were slaughtered.
The Moro Massacre by U.S. troops in the Philippines dwarfed all other crimes of its kind in American history. Around 800 to 100 Moros at Bud Dajo, or 99 percent, were killed. Only six survived. In his satire, Mark Twain remarked, "We abolished them utterly, leaving not even a baby alive to cry for its dead mother… This is incomparably the greatest victory that was ever achieved by the Christian soldiers of the United States."
丹尼爾•伊默瓦爾在其書《如何隐藏一個帝國：美國的地理、國土和實力》中指出，到1902年中期，美軍損失了約4000名士兵，其中四分之三以上死于疾病。據該書統計，菲律賓軍隊約有16,000人死于戰鬥。但這僅是記錄在案的戰争死亡人數，隻是總死亡率的一小部分。富蘭克林•貝爾将軍（J. Franklin Bell）估計，僅在呂宋島，戰争就殺死了約60萬人，占菲律賓六分之一的人口。曆史學家肯•德貝瓦斯 (Ken De Bevoise)的研究發現，在1899年至1903年間，約有 775,000 名菲律賓人死于戰争。
Daniel Immerwahr points out in his book How to Hide an Empire: A History of the Greater United States that by mid-1902, the U.S. lost about 4,000 soldiers, among which three-fourths died from diseases. In comparison, around 16,000 Philippine soldiers died on the battleground, according to the book. This, however, was just the number being recorded, representing but a small proportion of the total casualties.
General J. Franklin Bell estimated that Americans had killed about 600,000 Filipinos in Luzon alone, which accounted for one-sixth of the Philippine population. Historian Ken De Bevoise's research found that approximately 775,000 Filipinos died from war between 1899 and 1903.
通過這場以“解放古巴”為名、叫闆老牌殖民帝國西班牙的戰争，美國以協定轉讓和購買的方式獲得了對古巴和菲律賓的“殖民控制權”。以古巴為跳闆，美國走向南美并控制了加勒比海地區；以菲律賓為中轉站，美國開啟了向東亞大陸的擴張之路，向世界宣告了美國的崛起。此後，美國陸續占有了關島、薩摩亞等地，并在兩次世界大戰中日漸壯大，擴大海外領土，走向了世界霸主之座。
Through the Spanish-American War fought under the cloak of "liberating Cuba," the U.S. secured its colonial control over Cuba and the Philippines through contractual transfer and purchase. Taking Cuba as a springboard, it extended its footprints to South America and gained control over the Caribbean; using the Philippines as a transit, it started its expansion towards East Asia, declaring to the world the rise of the United States. After the war, the U.S. took possession of more colonies including Guam and Samoa, and further expanded its overseas territories during the two world wars to become the global hegemon.
二戰之後，菲律賓獲得了獨立，夏威夷和阿拉斯加成為了美國的州。一方面，這是殖民地反抗的結果。另一方面得益于經濟發展和技術的進步，美國開始用全球化代替殖民，以更加隐蔽的方式，如主導國際政治經濟規則的制定，通過包括顔色革命、混合戰争等手段，繼續控制并幹預世界上的其他地方，繼續用包裝成“自由、民主、人權”等的美麗謊言鋪就自己的帝國之路。
After World War II, the Philippines gained independence, and Hawaii and Alaska became American states. For one thing, this was a result of decolonization struggles. For another, thanks to economic and technological development, the U.S. began to use globalization as an alternative to colonization, controlling and manipulating other parts of the world through more covet means.
These include dominating the international political and economic rule-making process, staging color revolutions and conducting hybrid wars. This way, it could continue to shore up its imperial ambition with lies in the disguise of so-called freedom, democracy and human rights.
作者系中國社會科學院美國研究所助理研究員俞鳳
The author, Yu Feng, is an assistant research fellow at the Institute of American Studies, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.