Text / Zhang Jianyu
Abstract: The Song Dynasty illustrated version of the Lotus Sutra prevailed, and the traditional mural images were not applicable, the Northern Song Dynasty painters created a kind of "High Platform Diagram" suitable for the opening of the volume, this example was opened, the Southern Song Dynasty during the two Zhejiang regions where the engraving and printing industry was most developed became a stereotype, and then spread to the surrounding areas, spreading to the northwest through land to the Western Xia, the southwest affected the Dali State, and the east crossed the sea to Japan. In places where the printing industry is underdeveloped, such as Dali and Japan, there is a reverse influence of converting "printmaking" into "picture books". Until the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty, the "Gaotai Dharma Map" was still popular throughout China and Goryeo, and the subject matter expanded beyond the Lotus Sutra, becoming a "standard model" of East Asian sutra scrolls and a new category of cultural exchange at that time. This article will conduct an in-depth investigation and interpretation of this article.
Keywords: Song and Yuan Dynasties Lotus Sutra Gaotai Saying Diagram Ling Vulture Mountain Engraving Printing Title Painting
Compared with the Sui and Tang dynasties, cultural exchanges in the Song and Yuan dynasties showed many new faces. The most significant changes were that the Sui and Tang cultural centers were in Liangjing, and the exchanges between the Central Plains region centered on Chang'an and Luoyang and the Western Regions were frequent and close [1]; after entering the Song Dynasty, the status of Jiangnan gradually improved, especially in the Southern Song Dynasty, and the exchanges between the two Zhejiang regions and the surrounding areas became more and more important. Another change is the category of cultural exchange, and the illustrated Buddhist books examined in this article are one such example, although it appeared in the Tang Dynasty, but it was not until five generations later that it really became popular and became a new category of East Asian cultural exchanges in the Song and Yuan dynasties.
One of the changing trends in Song and Yuan Buddhist art is that the traditional grotto statues are gradually declining, and the sutra scrolls of Buddhist paintings are gradually popular and become a new category, and this change is particularly evident in the "Hokke Art". Hokke art refers to the form of art that expresses the contents of the Lotus Sutra, a term commonly used in Japanese academic circles. [2] However, Chinese Hokke art is no less powerful than Japan in terms of the number of works and artistic influence, and is often the leader of new fashions. The theme of "two Buddhas sitting side by side" that was popular from the Southern and Northern Dynasties of the Wei and Jin Dynasties to the Tang Dynasty is a well-known Theme of Fahua Art. [3] This article will discuss another form of Hokke art, the popular mode of expression of the "Gaotai Dharma Diagram" in the Buddhist paintings of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, which flourished throughout East Asia between the 12th and 14th centuries after its appearance in the first half of the 11th century. It first appeared in the engraving of the Lotus Sutra in the southern Song Dynasty and zhejiang regions, and later expanded the subject matter beyond the Lotus Sutra, spread geographically to the neighboring countries of the Southern Song Dynasty, spread to the western Xia in the northwest, the southwest to influence the Dali kingdom, and spread to Japan to the east, until the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty was still popular throughout China and Goryeo, becoming the popular "standard model" of East Asian sutra scroll Buddhist paintings.
The "High Platform Map" of the First and Second Song Dynasties: from picture books to prints
The Revival of the Tendai Sect established during the Two Song Dynasties based on the Lotus Sutra[4] at the same time, other sects also respected the Sutra, so there were a large number of exquisitely illustrated Lotus Sutras, which were divided into two categories: "writing books/picture books" and "engravings/prints". The Illustrations of the Lotus Sutra of the Song Dynasty, often feature a three-quarters-sided "High Platform Diagram", which was first found in Northern Song Dynasty picture books and flourished in the form of prints during the Southern Song Dynasty, forming a stable pattern of images.
(1) The emergence of the "high platform map"
The earliest extant example of the "Gaotai Saying" depicted in the Buddhist paintings of the sutra scrolls is the Lotus Sutra of He Zizhiben in the fourth year of the Northern Song Dynasty (1044). The volume is stored in the Jimo District Museum in Qingdao City, Shandong Province (Volumes 1 to 5 and 7) and the Jiaozhou City Museum in Shandong Province (Volume 6), with the name of He Zizhi, and was produced in Xichong County, Guozhou (present-day Nanchong, Sichuan). [5] Scrolls, green paper, gold and silver books, each of the seven volumes has a mud and gold silver opening painting, the middle of the picture is shakya dharma map, the form is highly similar. The Buddhist paintings in the sutra scrolls should be considered to be partially coordinated with the scriptures, so the positive symmetrical images that prevail in the murals are often not used, and the drawings are mostly at a three-quarters side angle, with the main figure facing the left, so that the subsequent scriptures are like those preached by the Buddha himself. The first painting of Wang Jie's Diamond Sutra in the ninth year (868) of the Xiantong Ninth Year (868) from the Dunhuang Tibetan Scripture Cave is a famous early example of the use of this method of painting. [6] The "He Zi Zhi Ben" diagram also uses the same way of expression, and the special feature is that the picture depicts for the first time a spacious and gorgeous high platform, with the main figure and the "Hearing Dharma Crowd" on a high platform, and the high platform has a trunk on all four sides and a staircase, which looks solemn and grand.
Why draw a high platform? This involves the pictorial representation of the "place of discourse" of a Buddhist painting. The so-called "saying place" refers to the place where the Buddha spoke, and the well-known ones are the Deer Field Garden in the Kingdom of Polonai, the Vulture Mountain in the Capricorn Kingdom (Qijing Mountain/栗陁羅矩咤山) and the Bamboo Forest Elite House (Galanta Bamboo Garden), and the Gion Tree of the Guardian Kingdom. In the mural "Lotus Sutra Change", The Fatu mostly takes the mountain as the background to represent the Ling Vulture Mountain where Shakya said that the Lotus Sutra is located, such as the north wall of Cave 23 (Sheng Tang) of Mogao Caves, the south wall of Cave 159 (Middle Tang), the slope top of Cave 85 (Late Tang Dynasty), and the south wall of Cave 61 (Five Dynasties). However, when the warp is reduced to an illustration, the situation changes. The earliest surviving illustrated version of the Lotus Sutra was found in the Third Heavenly Palace of the Ruiguang Temple Pagoda in Suzhou, painted in the Tang Dynasty and restored by the Five Dynasties, and is now in the Suzhou Museum. [7] The "Ruiguang Temple Taben" is 27 cm to 27.6 cm in length, and due to the limited height of the frame, it is difficult to depict the Ling Vulture Mountain like the mural, nor does it appear as other pictorial characteristics of the Ling Vulture Mountain, reflecting the early appearance of the Buddhist paintings in the Lotus Sutra.
In the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, He Zizhiben's Illustration of the Lotus Sutra for the first time interpreted the Lingvulture Mountain in the image of Gaotai, creating a new expression of the Lingvulture Mountain. The "Gaotai Dharma Chart" is very suitable for the horizontal scroll form of the sutra Scroll Buddha painting, and from the text point of view, it also conforms to the characteristics of the Spirit Vulture Mountain. Xuanzang (602-664) in the Tang Dynasty Records of the Western Regions, Volume IX, "Vulture Peaks and Buddha's Traces", said to Shakya that the Lotus Sutra describes the Lotus Sutra as "another type of high platform":
Connecting with the sun of the north mountain, the lone standard is special, both perched vulture birds, and similar to high platforms, the sky is green and green, and the colors are thick and light. If you come to the imperial world, you will live in this mountain for fifty years, and you will talk about the magic method. 〔8〕
Because of the application of both form and content, after the 12th century, the "High Platform Dharma Map" became the standard model for illustration in the Lotus Sutra. When depicting the high platform, the painter borrowed the image of the altar used to enshrine the statue in the hall of the Han Chinese Buddhist temple, as well as the platform with steps outside the temple, in short, the image came from the local Han architecture, rather than the foreign Indian style. As for its lack of popularity before the 11th century, only the only example of "He Zi Zhiben" in the fourth year of the Qing calendar can be seen.
(2) The Transmutation of the Lotus Sutra Prints in the Two Zhejiang Regions
The title painting style of the seven-volume engraving of the Lotus Sutra in the 11th century is typical of the scripture scrolls produced by the Song Pagoda in Xinxian County, Shandong Province in 1968. [9] These scrolls were locally published by the Qian clan of Hangzhou (or a descendant of Qian Hongli) and the Yan family, and there are four sets of seven-volume engraving types of the Lotus Sutra, namely the "Jiayou Five-Year Edition" (1060), the "Jiayou Eight-Year Edition" (1063), the "Xining Yuannian Ben" (1068) and the "Xining Ernian Ben" (1069). They are all folded, with four-fold title paintings in front of each scroll, shakya pictures engraved on the right, the main figure on the side of the three-quarters of the side, surrounded by bodhisattvas, disciples, and other congregations, and on the left is a narrative image showing the content of each product. Shih-shan Susan Huang of Rice University in the United States pointed out: "From the comparison of The Fourth Volume of the Qian Family in 1060 and the Third Volume of the Yan Family in 1069, it can be seen that the design of the title paintings of the Qian and Yan families has reflected a considerable degree of standardized format. [10] None of the title paintings of the Northern Song Dynasty Lotus Sutra show a high platform, and like the "Ruiguang Temple Taben" lack the pictorial characteristics of the "place of discourse".
By the time of the Southern Song Dynasty, the illustrations of the Lotus Sutra picture books were no longer popular, at least so far no examples were found, and with the prosperity of the engraving and printing industry[11], the engraving of the Lotus Sutra became popular, especially the seven-volume illustrated scroll type, which was popular in the two Zhejiang Roads of the Southern Song Dynasty, including Lin'an (present-day Hangzhou, Zhejiang), Mingzhou (present-day Ningbo, Zhejiang), wuxing (present-day Huzhou, Zhejiang) and other places. Many of the surviving versions of the Lotus Sutra, which are highly similar to each other's title paintings, are mature and well-made, and the Southern Song Dynasty called this set of illustrations composed of seven title paintings "LianXiang". From the image point of view, the Southern Song Dynasty "Lotus Sutra" prints are similar to the Northern Song Prints found in the Song Pagoda in Xinxian County, Shandong, and the two must have a continuing relationship, the most significant difference is that the "Shakya Fa Tu" in the Southern Song Dynasty paintings are all expressed on the high platform, presumably borrowed from the "He Zi Zhi Ben" or other similar early picture book patterns.
The earliest surviving version of the Lotus Sutra, an illustrated version of the Southern Song Dynasty, is the "Southern Song Dynasty DaziBen", written by Chen Zhong, Chen Gao, and Li Rong, the engravers of the Siming Dynasty (present-day Ningbo, Zhejiang), and was published around the mid-12th century. [12] This edition was developed on the basis of the title painting of the Lotus Sutra published in Hangzhou in the Northern Song Dynasty produced by Xinxian County, and the composition was generally the same as that of the Northern Song Dynasty prints, the image was more exquisite and perfect, the trim was also different, and the most important difference was that the high platform performance was added to the map. Shakya and the "Dharma Hearers" are on a wide rectangular platform covered with flower tiles, with a dry edge and steps on the left, which looks exquisite and gorgeous and quite atmospheric (Figure 1).
Figure 1 Southern Song Dynasty large character "Lotus Sutra" volume 1 title painting paper folded 23.3×12.6 cm, Kyoto, Japan
After the "Southern Song Dynasty Dazi Ben", a number of sets of engravings of the Lotus Sutra with similar illustrations were successively produced, and the "Qin Meng et al. Periodicals" (Taipei National Palace Museum), the "Jian'an Fansheng Periodicals" (National Library of China), the "Lu Daoyuan Ben" (National Library of China) of the Second Year of Jingding (1261), the "Li Du Periodicals" (the National Library of China), and the "Wang Yi Periodicals" (Taipei National Palace Museum) in the late Song and early Yuan Dynasties, the title painting forms are in the same line as the "Southern Song Dynasty DaziBen", and their most significant features are. It is to depict the "high platform diagram". The above 6 editions (see attached table), each version has 7 title paintings, a total of 42 prints, without exception. The image of Gaotai became the primary feature of the Title Painting of the Southern Song Dynasty that distinguished it from the Northern Song Dynasty printmaking.
In the two Zhejiang regions, this kind of "Lotus Sutra" prints marked by the "Gaotai Fa Tu" were popular in the Southern Song Dynasty, and by the Yuan Dynasty, the customs changed again. Around the turn of the Song and Yuan dynasties, there was a set of large-character copies of the Lotus Sutra (collected by the National Library of China and the Changshu City Museum)[14], all of which had title paintings at the beginning of the seven volumes, and the composition mode and image content were similar to those of the Southern Song Dynasty prints, but the "big characters" no longer represented Gaotai and reverted to the early practice of the Northern Song Dynasty engravings produced by Xinxian County. In the Yuan Dynasty, there were also many versions such as "Gu Fengxiang DaziBen" (National Library of China), "YuanJian Su Ti Ben" (Taipei National Palace Museum), "Chen Daorong Su Manuscript" (Taipei National Palace Museum), etc., which did not depict Gaotai, forming the second widely popular seven-volume engraving of the Lotus Sutra. The reasons behind this change are unknown, but the process of image transmutation is very clear. It should also be noted that the above changes are only for the engravings of the Lotus Sutra in the two Zhejiang regions, while the themes other than the Lotus Sutra in the Yuan Dynasty and the continued popularity of the "Gaotai Dharma Map" outside the two Zhejiang provinces will be discussed later.
2. Overland Westward Transmission: Western Xia Prints and Dali Picture Books
The Southern Song Dynasty and Zhejiang regions were economically and culturally prosperous, and "it was the most developed place in the country's carving and printing handicraft industry at that time" [15]. The style of lotus sutra prints created in the region was not only popular in Jiangnan, but also affected the surrounding regions and countries. The following discussion discusses the evidence of the westward spread of the "Gaotai Fatu", which was first affected by the Western Xia, and then the Dali State in the southwest.
(1) Inheritance and simplification: Western Xia carved Buddhist paintings unearthed in Blackwater City
The Chinese-illustrated Lotus Sutra of the Western Xia dynasty is from the ruins of Khara Khoto in Inner Mongolia. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian expedition found six copies of the Lotus Sutra with title paintings, now in the Collection of Oriental Literature of the Russian Academy of Sciences, numbered Russian TK1 (volume 1), Russian TK3 (volume 3), Russian TK4 (volume 4), Russian TK10 (volume 6), Russian TK11 (volume 7) and Russian TK15 (volume 2). [16] In the face of these sutras, we must first consider how they relate, and whether they are Buddhist books of the same period and the same edition. Here are three basic observations:
1. Each volume has the same shape, all are folded; the layout is the same, each folded surface has eight lines, full of sixteen characters; the size is also the same.
2. The time of the vow is timed. Volume 1 (Russian TK1) title painting left edge engraving: "Fengtian Xiandao Yaowu Xuanwen Shen Mou Rui / Zhi Zhi Yi Emperor." [17] This is the honorific title of Emperor Renzong of Western Xia (reigned 1140-1193). Volume VII (Russian TK11) at the end of the inscription of the third year of The Celebration (1146), coinciding with the reign of Emperor Renzong of Western Xia, Qiyun: "Now there are Qingxin disciples who carve characters Suchi Wang Shanhui, Wang Shanyuan, He Shanhai, Guo Dogburi, etc., who are also Dharma friends, Teru Weicheng, and the shangdian sect chamber Yushitai Zhengyi is the first of the knots, the order work skeleton, and its daily meals and meals, etc., are all given by the clan room... The people of Bactria celebrate the third year of the year in May. ”〔18〕
3. The name of the engraver inscribed at the end of each volume corresponds. Volume VII (Russian TK11) inscription appears "Wang Shanhui, Wang Shanyuan, He Shanhai, Guo Dog Buried" four carver names. Wang Shanyuan's name appears at the end of volume VI (Russian TK10); Guo Dog is buried in volume IV (Russian TK4) and carved again, only this time it is engraved as "Guo Gou Buried"; the last issue of volume II (Russian TK15) is engraved with three characters, vague and difficult to distinguish, the first two words are vaguely "Wang Shan", most likely "Wang Shanhui"; "He Shanhai" appeared at the end of a fragment of volume V of the Lotus Sutra (Russian TK9) excavated at the same time, but the volume was damaged and the title painting no longer exists.
The above evidence shows that the six illustrated volumes of the Lotus Sutra unearthed in Blackwater City, as well as the fifth fragment of the volume (Russian TK9), should be different volumes of the same version of the Lotus Sutra, made at the same time. The inscription in volume VII clearly states that "all of its daily meals and meals are given to him by the clan room", and also says that "the imperial history of the imperial history of the dianzong room is the first of the knots", according to which it is inferred that the place of publication is probably the Western Xia capital Xingqing Province (present-day Yinchuan, Ningxia), not the Heishui City in Inner Mongolia.
Figure 2 Painting of the Lotus Sutra volume 1 unearthed in Blackwater City Folded 15.4 ×8.9 cm 1146 Collection of the Institute of Oriental Literature of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Of these 6 Western Xia "Lotus Sutra" prints, only the first volume (Russian TK1) title painting occupies a four-fold face (Figure 2), and the canvas is wider, the same as the Song prints popular in the two Zhejiang Provinces. The three-fold surface on the right is a map of the Fa, magnificent, the image is similar to the Southern Song Dynasty prints, the picture appears on the high platform, but the stem and tiles are omitted, which is relatively simple. The head of Shakya is "white and light between the eyebrows", which is the same as the Northern Song Dynasty prints excavated in Xinxian County and the Southern Song Dynasty prints such as the "Southern Song Dynasty Character Book". There is also a detail, there is a canopy on the top of Shakya, and the two sides of the canopy are flying, which is a new element developed from the Southern Song Dynasty printmaking, and is not found in the Northern Song Dynasty 'Lotus Sutra' prints.
French scholar Anne Saliceti-Collins, in her master's thesis "Western Xia Buddhist Woodcut Prints Unearthed in Blackwater City" (2007), believes that this batch of Western Xia illustrations is modeled on Northern Song dynasty prints: "This title painting in Blackwater City is very similar to the opening painting of the Northern Song Dynasty's Lotus Sutra, and it is certain that the Western Xia carvers are familiar with the visual programs of the Song Dynasty." [19] Cheyenne then examines the historical records of western Xia's visits to the Song dynasty in the 11th century, revealing the background of western Xia Buddhist prints imitating Song paintings: "The Western Xia people largely obtained Buddhist books through the neighboring Song Dynasty, and historical documents record that they visited the Song tripitaka in total. [20] Huang Shishan further added on the basis of Cheyenne: "In the process of spreading the Culture of Buddhist Printmaking in the Song Dynasty to Western Xia, Han monks and carvers who worked in the translation bureaus and printing projects sponsored by the rulers of Western Xia played a key role. [21] However, a careful comparison of the images shows that the Western Xia edition volume has a high platform and a canopy, which is a typical feature of the Southern Song Dynasty's Fahuajing printmaking, which is not found in the Northern Song Dynasty, showing that the Western Xia Ben not only "took the Northern Song Hangzhou printmaking as a model", but also borrowed from the new southern Song Dynasty in the 12th century.
Perhaps embarrassed by financial resources, in the title paintings of the Lotus Sutra in the several volumes of the Lotus Sutra other than Volume 1, the Western Xia craftsmen greatly reduced the images of Song paintings from Jiangnan, and the canvas was only two folded. The fatu only has a folded surface, and due to the limitation of the frame, the high platform has to be omitted, and the disciples in front of the lord are only two bodies. The images on the left also occupy a folded surface, and the two parts of the image are rigidly juxtaposed together, without any transitional space.
The overall investigation of this set of Western Xia editions of the "Lotus Sutra" title paintings, volume 1 strives to be comparable to song paintings, the canvas is four folded, drawing on the new sample of "Gaotai Fa Tu" that has just begun to be popular in the two Zhejiang regions, giving people a sense of opening the volume and grandeur; the remaining volumes retreat to the second, making a more pragmatic "simplified version", highlighting the difference between Xia and Song.
(2) From prints to picture books: Dali Chinese Buddhist paintings
The Southern Song Dynasty Buddha drawings spread to the northwest to the Western Xia, and also to the southwest to dali in Yunnan, and the visual evidence of this can be found in the Dali National Buddhist painting "Shakyamuni Buddha Society" (No. F1926.1) collected by the Freer Museum of Art in the United States, which was produced from the second half of the 12th century to the middle of the 13th century.
The painting was originally the first painting of the apocryphal sutra "The Seven Sutras of the Pre-cultivation of the Ten Kings", and the museum was named "The Buddha Addressing Yamaraja at Kusinagara". Horizontal painting format, painting the Scene of the Buddha," the statues are located on the high platform, the edge of the high platform is set dry, and the left side is set with steps. The Lord sat on a lotus pedestal in the middle of the high platform, on three-quarters sides, with a fan-shaped light and canopy on the top of his head, and the two sides of the canopy were painted with flying heavens, surrounded by disciples, bodhisattvas, and the four heavenly kings. There is an offering table in front of the Buddha, and the Demon King kneels in front of the table, and there is a peacock pacing in the foreground. The vista depicts the moon wheel, the mountains, the clouds and two flying cranes. There are two attendants under the steps, each with a long handle. The left edge of the picture reads "Nam No Extinction Is Repaying the Shakyamuni Buddha's Society".
Judging from the image form, this scroll can undoubtedly be classified as a "high platform diagram" type. Examining the limited number of illustrations of the scriptures in Dali, even Dali Buddhist paintings such as Zhang Shengwen's BrahmaNas, as well as many illustrated editions of the Seven Sutras of the Pre-repaired Ten Kings and Students from dunhuang Tibetan scripture caves and Zhejiang Huangyan Lingshi Pagodas, [22] no precedent was found for the use of the "Gaotai Dharma Map", so it can only be explained that this illustration is imitated from the Southern Song Dynasty's "Lotus Sutra" prints. Some people may ask, why is it not borrowed from northern Song Dynasty Buddhist paintings such as "He Zi Zhiben"? It is true that "He Zizhiben" was the first to depict the "Gaotai Fa tu", and its production place is closer to Yunnan, but a careful comparison between the Northern Song Dynasty Buddhist paintings and the Southern Song Dynasty "Lotus Sutra" prints, only the latter depicts the canopy, the flying sky (or phoenix) and the fan-shaped light on the top of the main figure, and these details have not yet appeared in the illustrations of the Northern Song Dynasty scriptures, so the model of this Dali Chinese Buddhist painting can only be a Southern Song Dynasty print. The painter only needs to transform the kneeling disciple statue in front of the Buddha into a Yama Demon King, and the narrative drawings on the left side are painted into attendants and landscapes, and then the transformation is completed.
Another change that cannot be ignored is the transformation of engraved Buddhist paintings into picture book illustrations. Huang Shishan put forward a valuable argument in her essay "Media Transformation and Sub-mold Design Seen in Buddhist Printmaking in the Tang and Song Dynasties" (2014): "In the Song Dynasty, when the printmaking atmosphere was increasingly popular, in addition to copying from ancient paintings, there were also many prints taken from contemporary paintings at that time", and called it "the transformation of the medium from 'painting' to 'printmaking'" and calling it "the transformation of the medium from 'painting' to 'printmaking'. [23] However, the borrowing of art forms is often two-way, in addition to the transformation direction of the medium from painting to printmaking, printmaking may also have a "reverse impact" on picture books. The reason why Daliguo illustrations appeared from "prints" to "paintings" (picture books) of the "media transformation", there are two intertwined reasons: first, in East Asia from the 12th century to the 13th century, the Southern Song Dynasty culture was the most developed, naturally affecting the surrounding countries, or becoming "imitators"; second, the Southern Song Dynasty engraving and printing industry flourished, but the Dali Kingdom in the same period has not yet entered the "printing era", and book production is still based on traditional writing (picture books). In such a situation, the reverse effect of "printmaking" to "painting" is not only normal and reasonable, but even has a certain inevitability. As we broaden our horizons, a similar reverse "media transformation" is seen not only in Dali, but also in Japan and Goryeo.
3. Transmission from the Sea to the East: From "Invited Art" to Kamakura Buddha Painting
The Southern Song Dynasty sutra scrolls of Buddhist paintings had an important influence on Japan, and this influence can be analyzed in two aspects. In the first aspect, the illustrated Buddhist scriptures produced by the Song Dynasty were transmitted to Japan, which is what the Japanese call "invited art". For example, the aforementioned Southern Song Dynasty large-character edition of the Lotus Sutra was engraved by the Ningbo carvers Chen Zhong, Chen Gao and Li Rong in the early Southern Song Dynasty, and some of the printed copies were subsequently transmitted to Japan, and now there is a set of seven-volume complete scriptures in Kyoto's Chestnut Thorn Temple. [24] In the second aspect, Japanese craftsmen imitated the Southern Song Dynasty Buddhist paintings to draw the Japanese "Kamakura Version". This section focuses on the latter aspect through two volumes of the Kamakura-era Picture Book of Japan.
The New York Public Library houses a 13th-century illuminated edition of the Lotus Sutra from Kyoto, Japan, in scrolls, on cyanotic paper, with the inscription "Kokura Kaga" at the end of the volume. The first painting is painted in gold, dazzling gold, quite meteorological, the right half is a map, and the left half is the image of each volume in the Title Painting of the Lotus Sutra of the Southern Song Dynasty, selecting a number of important themes, condensing them in one volume, and transforming the "seven-volume engraving" into a "one-volume picture book". (Figure 3)
Figure 3 New York Collection of the Lotus Sutra Preface Painting Cyanotic Paper Gilded Gold 23.4 × 77.1 cm 13th century New York Public Library Collection, USA
The first half of the scroll resembles the Southern Song Dynasty Lotus Sutra title painting, in which Shakya sits on a lotus platform with a canopy on his head and two rays of light between his eyebrows, surrounded by two disciples, four protectors, and four bodhisattvas, and four bhikkhus and six celestial beings (or dragon kings) kneeling before the Buddha. The representation of the "place of discourse" in this map has both similarities and differences with the southern Song Dynasty's Lotus Sutra prints. The picture depicts a rectangular high platform, with four sides of the dry, two sides of the steps and the surface tile treatment are the same as the "Southern Song Dynasty Large Character Book". The difference is that Shakya paints a mountain behind him, shaped like a bird of prey, to represent the Vulture Mountain (Vulture Mountain) that is "like a vulture on the top of the mountain". [25] However, such images of peaks cannot be found in Southern Song Dynasty prints. There are 16 groups of smaller images in the left half of the opening painting, depicting the contents of the Lotus Sutra, and with the illustration on the right, a total of 17 groups of images are drawn in the whole painting. Comparing the scriptures, it is clear that the images are roughly arranged in order from right to left.
Popular in the Southern Song Dynasty, the 7-volume engraving of the Lotus Sutra is rich in title paintings, and careful comparison of images can be confirmed, and Japanese painters selected a number of important images from the seven title paintings of the Southern Song Dynasty, processed, transformed and reorganized, thus forming the current appearance. For example, in the Kamakura picture book", "Paint Buddha Statues, Gather Sand for Pagodas" plot (No. 1-2), the painters depict three parts in turn: "Drawing Statues", "Carving Buddha Statues" and "Boy Ritual Pagodas", all of which are similar to the Southern Song Dynasty prints, but the latter has two more pictures: "Respecting buddha" and "making music and offerings". Another example is the story of "Poor Zi Yu" (No. 2-4), where Japanese painters omit the plot of the poor man fainting in the printmaking and the grass temple in the plot of hiring the poor man, the narrative is obviously incomplete, which increases the difficulty of reading the map, which should be caused by abbreviated on the basis of the Song ben prints.
Coincidentally, the Cleveland Museum of Art also houses a golden book, the Book of The Lotus (No. 1970.64). [26] Scroll loading, cyanotic paper, there is also a scroll painting before the scriptures, whether it is the material of the scroll, the beginning of the scroll, or the script, all of which are very similar to the aforementioned "New York Collection", which can be described as a pair of "twins".
Previously, most scholars and the Cleveland Museum of Art agreed that the Cleveland Collection was written by the Southern Song Dynasty, but there was disagreement over whether the production era was in the 12th century or the 13th century. [27] In 2015, the Japanese scholar Hirotoshi Sudo proposed a new view, arguing that the sutra was written in Kamakura, Japan. [28] The reason is that the "New York Collection" is from Kyoto, and there is an inscription on "Kokura Kaga" at the end of the volume, which is undoubtedly written in Japan, and it is almost identical to the "Cleveland Collection" in terms of material, size, font, and front painting, so the latter should also be written in Japan.
Previously, the author thought that the volume was a 13th-century Southern Song Dynasty manuscript, and after reading the works of Sudo Hirotoshi, he carefully compared the two volumes of the Lotus Sutra in the United States, and then changed his opinion and agreed that the "Cleveland Collection" was written by Kamakura in Japan. Here are a few additional comments from the author:
1. From the perspective of the evolution of the Buddhist form system, the two Song Dynasties were an important turning point, when the folding was popular and gradually replaced the traditional scrolling suit. In particular, in the Southern Song Dynasty, all the illustrated editions of the Lotus Sutra published so far in the Southern Song Dynasty are invariably folded. In contrast, in Japan, scroll loading is still prevalent, and there will even be a "return to the ancestor phenomenon" that looks like Chinese - after the Chinese folded Buddhist books were introduced to Japan, they were converted into scrolls.
2. In the Southern Song Dynasty, the printing industry was developed, printmaking was prevalent, and the picture book Buddhist paintings in the sutra scrolls were rare. Specific to the Lotus Sutra, whether in the Northern Song Dynasty or the Yuan Dynasty, there are still a certain proportion of picture book illustrations, while the Southern Song Dynasty has a large number of prints of the Lotus Sutra, but no picture books have been found. Looking further at the lotus sutras of the entire Tang and Song dynasties, only the "seven-volume picture book" type (such as the Ruiguang Temple Taben and he Zizhi ben) appeared, and there was no "one-volume picture book" type like the "New York Collection" and the "Cleveland Collection".
3. Judging from the image at the beginning of the volume, although the "New York Collection" and the "Cleveland Collection" are simplified and reorganized on the basis of southern Song Dynasty prints,[29] they also show certain Japanese characteristics, the most prominent of which is the "vulture-like mountaintop" painting method in the map. Waseda University professor Lumi Hida once pointed out: "For example, in the "Biography of the Three Tibetan Masters of The Great Ci'en Temple", Xuanzang visited the real Ling Vulture Mountain, described its landscape and sacred relics in the mountain, and recorded that its appearance was 'shaped like a vulture bird'. This resulted in the title page painting of the Lotus Sutra, etc., which is a fixed use of the spirit mountain expression of the vulture head shaped mountaintop. [30] In Japan, paintings depicting the Spirit Vulture Mountain in the shape of birds of prey are common, but in Chinese art, this kind of expression is extremely rare, with the exception of the "Hokke Sutra" mural in The Sui 420 Cave of the Mogao Caves, and [31] The Buddhist paintings of sutra scrolls before the 14th century are completely absent.
In summary, the author believes that the Lotus Sutra in New York and Cleveland is also a Kamakura manuscript, not a Southern Song Dynasty work. If this view is true, it means that these two scrolls not only reflect the reference of Japanese Kamakura Buddha paintings to southern Song Dynasty Buddhist paintings, but also reflect the "reverse influence" of engraved prints on picture books, because at that time, the situation between Japan and Dali was similar, and engraved seals were not yet popular. It was not until the beginning of the 15th century that a copy of the Lotus Sutra imitating southern Song Dynasty prints appeared in Japan, the Hokke Sutra of nara Tang Zhao Ti Temple in the nineteenth year of Ying Yong (1412). [32] The original form is still a scroll, and the title drawing follows the "High Platform Diagram" popular in the Southern Song Dynasty.
Fourth, the spread and appropriation of the "High Platform Dharma Map" in the Mongolian Yuan Era
In the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty, the prints of the Lotus Sutra in the two Zhejiang regions were no longer popular in the "Gaotai Dharma Map", but the illustrations of the Lotus Sutra picture books and other Buddhist books were still using this pattern that had become "traditional", and spread farther, spreading farther, spreading to Turpan in the northwest and influencing Goryeo in the northeast, which was called the "standard model" of Buddhist painting at that time.
(1) Picture books and embroideries of the Lotus Sutra
The Southern Song Dynasty is the golden stage of the engraving and printing industry, picture book illustrations have entered a period of stagnation, the Yuan Dynasty once again resumed the practice of writing sutras and hand-painted sutra scrolls of Buddha painting, and most of the picture book title paintings of the Lotus Sutra follow the southern Song Dynasty prints, often depicting "high platform map", once again reflecting the drawing of picture books on printmaking.
The "Zhu Jue Picture Book" of the National Palace in Taipei is the only picture book of the Lotus Sutra in the Yuan Dynasty. [33] Folded, the seven volumes of the Golden Book of Cyanotic Paper have title paintings and trailing protectors. According to the inscription at the end of the volume, it can be seen that the volume was funded by the family of He Yunzhong in Jiading prefecture, Pingjiang Road, Zhejiang Province (present-day Jiading, Shanghai), and the "Illustration Introduction" was drawn by Wang Zhenpeng's disciple Zhu Hu, and the production time was "To Shun Chang Yuan Nian Zi Geng Noon" (1330). The title paintings of each volume are wider than those of the Southern Song Dynasty, but still maintain the structure of the narrative diagram on the right and the narrative diagram on the left. Among them, the right half of 5 volumes depicts a "Gaotai Dharma Map" similar to the Southern Song Dynasty prints, the main figure is Shakya, and the right half of the other 2 volumes (volume 5 and volume 6) depicts Shakya and Duobao Two Buddhas sitting in duo pagodas, and the auspicious clouds under the pagoda are swirling, so as to distinguish between the "Lingshan Society" and the "Void Society".
The "Catalogue of the Third Batch of National Precious Ancient Books" has published a set of Yuan Dynasty clay gold and silver "Lotus Classic" manuscripts, now in the Tianjin Museum, precious ancient books No. 07178. [34] Folded, cyanotic gold and silver books, 500% of the title painting. In addition to the difference in material and production method, the title painting image is very similar to the Southern Song Dynasty "seven-volume engraving" type of "Lotus Sutra" prints, as if it is imitating the engraving of The Buddha painting, but unfortunately the production location is not known.
At the end of the Yuan Dynasty, embroideries of the Lotus Sutra, modeled on Southern Song Buddhist paintings, also appeared in the Jiangnan region, which were obviously "patents" for women. The yellow silk embroidery of the Lotus Sutra at the Present Tibetan Capital Museum, Volume V, [35] imitates the scroll, and embroiders the scroll beginning, the scriptures, and the trailing protector in turn. Among them, the first painting of the volume takes the "Gaotai Fa Tu" as the main body, which obviously follows the southern Song Dynasty printmaking model (Figure 4), but the scale is larger. The lower left corner of the picture is embroidered with the words "Xu's young qiu clan core Qiu Xiu Er Niang" and the image of the pine tree and the second woman, which is thought to be a small portrait of the two embroidered women. At the end of the ink book inscription, it can be seen that it was created in the 26th year of the Yuan Dynasty (1366) by Li Delian and Yao Huizhen of "Jiahe, Zhejiang" (present-day Jiaxing, Zhejiang), a total of 5 sets of embroidery, it is speculated that each set of 7 pieces (seven volumes), unfortunately only one volume remains. The Shanghai Museum also collects an embroidered "Lotus Sutra" volume I, [36] Although the right side of the first painting is broken, it is definitely embroidered with a high platform, and the back of the volume is signed "Embroidery of the Female Good Man Li Delian". The inscription on the ink book on the embroidery says that Jiahe Li Delian used up his makeup and embroidered it in the "Yuan Zhi Zheng Bing Shen" (1356). The embroiderer, Li Delian, is the same person as the patron of the Shoubo embroidery, but the Shanghai Museum collection was made earlier.
Figure 4 Embroidered Lotus Sutra Volume 5 Volume 5 First Painting 53×83 cm 1366 Collection of the Capital Museum
During the Yuan Dynasty, the illustration style of the Lotus Sutra originating in Jiangnan was introduced north to Goryeo, and now there are many sets of 14th-century Koryo manuscripts of the Lotus Sutra in Japanese temples and European and American museums. [37] Most of the paintings at the beginning of the volume are painted with clay gold and silver as "High Platform Saying Map". The Goryeo illuminated manuscript "Lotus Sutra" volume II (No. 1994.207), now in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in the United States, was made around 1340, folded, with a four-fold face, the right half of which is painted with a high platform map, and the left half is painted with the contents of "Metaphorical Articles" and "Letter Interpretations", which are highly similar in style to the Southern Song Dynasty prints. Pak Youngsook (Pak Youngsook/박영숙) has studied this and believes that this Goryeo Lotus Sutra Buddhist painting imitates the Southern Song Dynasty "Wang Yi Journal" print. [38] However, the materials and techniques of Goryeo Buddhist paintings are different, and a large number of clay and exquisite depictions are used to create a solemn and abnormal visual effect, reflecting the aesthetic taste of the Goryeo court.
Another illustration of the Koryo Lotus Sutra, which imitates southern Song Dynasty prints, is the "Yin Deshi Picture Book", which has only one title painting, now in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, USA, No. 50.3605. The scrolls were originally folded, with cyanotic paper and a four-fold face, but because the scriptures did not exist, the title painting was later modified to form an axis, and three obvious longitudinal creases can still be seen on the screen, and the words "Protector Yin Deshi Painting" (Figure 5) are written in the lower left corner. On the right is an illuminated painting of a high platform, just like the Southern Song Dynasty prints depicting a high platform, with a solemn weather. The rest of the paintings depict smaller images of each product, each group of images with a list title, a total of 10 groups, showing the contents of "Herbal Metaphor", "Zhi ji pin" and "Huacheng Yu Pin", which can be seen as a volume three title painting. The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston has designated it as a yuan painting, Park Young-sook suggested to the museum many years ago that it be changed to a Goryeo Buddhist painting, and recently Hwang Shisan once again proposed that it is a Goryeo painting, and the author repeatedly observed the material and painting style, especially the decorative patterns in the border around the painting, and agreed with their judgment. 〔39〕
Figure 5 Yin Deshi Picture Book "Lotus Sutra" Volume 3 Title Painting Cyanotic Paper Clay Gold 20.9 × 45.8 cm 14th century Collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, USA
(2) Expansion of themes
Finally, look at three examples of Buddhist illustrations on topics other than the Lotus Sutra to discuss how the "Gaotai Dharma Map" was misappropriated and the "inter-ethnic" identity of this style of Buddhist painting.
The first one came from Xinjiang, which is the farthest I know of as the "Gaotai Fatu" spreading to the northwest. At the beginning of the 20th century, a German expedition in Turpan, Xinjiang, obtained a number of fragments of periodicals with images, and after conjugation, it was learned that the original Uighur Buddhist books of the Mongol era (possibly the "Commentary on the Interpretation of the Abhidharma Clubhouse") were originally title paintings, which were engraved around 1260. The right half of the painting is engraved with the words "Gaotai Fa Tu", the main figure is three-quarters of the side, the top of the head is capped, the back is carved with fan-shaped light, and the right edge has the words "Buddha is the place where the Heavenly Cao DiFu is said". The left half is a uighur statue of a uighur, and 47 members of the Uighur nobility appear, which are highly valued because they come from the family of Kublai Khan's close minister Mönzosi (1206-1267). [40] Regarding the place where it was made, most scholars speculate that it was published in Yanjing (present-day Beijing). Dang Baohai pointed out that the title painting "reflects the level of Han engraving and printing in the Mongolian era and the cultural exchange between The Han and Han dynasties." [41] I would like to further add that the left half of the title painting "Gaotai Fa Tu" is a typical Southern Song Dynasty Buddhist painting element, which was first introduced to northern China from the Jiangnan region, appropriated to other Buddhist illustrations, and then spread to Xinjiang by Meng Susi, a Mongolian Uighur nobleman who believed in Buddhism.
The latter two examples come from Hangzhou, which was originally the center of the printing industry in the Southern Song Dynasty. The Puning Tibetan Is a large Tibetan sutra engraved by the monks of the Baiyun Sect (Huayan Sect branch) in the early Yuan Dynasty, and was produced at the Dapuning Temple in Yuhang County, Hangzhou Road. [42] The Shanxi Provincial Library holds the Puning collection of the "Treatise on the Tao of Liberation", which is the old collection of Taiyuan Chongshan Temple, and [43] has a four-fold title painting at the beginning of the volume (Figure 6). The right half of the "Gaotai Fa Tu" is similar to the Southern Song Dynasty "Lotus Sutra" prints; the left half is carved with a magnificent temple, the forehead book "Banzai Hall", the hall sits the image of a king, and the ten monks in front of the hall are translating or proofreading the scriptures. On the left edge of the title painting, the words "Meritorious Master Eight Masters Vajrapani" appear. Eaves Eight (1230-1303), also known as the Tibetan monk Biba, the Chinese name Qingxi. He was recommended by Bashipa to be named Vajrapani Guru by Kublai Khan and abbot of Wutaishan Shouning Monastery, which was the beginning of Tibetan Buddhism on Mount Wutai. Bimba had strongly supported The abbot of Puning Monastery, Dao'an, and introduced him to Kublai Khan, so the Baiyun Sect honored Bimba as the meritorious lord of Puningzang. Nevertheless, the title painting is entirely in the Chinese style, apparently based on the Southern Song Dynasty Lotus Sutra print "Gaotai Fa tu".
Figure 6 Puning Collection "The Theory of Liberation On The Tao" Title Painting Paper Folded 26.7×11.3 cm Collection of Shanxi Provincial Library
The third example comes from the Moraine Sand Collection, a private edition of the Great Tibetan Classics engraved between the Song and Yuan dynasties, which began in the early 13th century and was completed in the second year of the Yuan Dynasty (1322). Among the Han Chinese Dazang Classics of the past dynasties, the Moraine Sand Collection has the largest number of illustrations, basically carved in the early Yuan Dynasty, presided over by Yang Lianzhenjia, a monk of the Sakya sect of the Dangxiang clan, and engraved at the Great Banzai Monastery in Hangzhou. The illustrations of the Moraine Sand Collection are divided into two categories: Han Style and Tibetan Style, of which there are very few Han style prints, represented by the Huayan Jing. The National Library of China has a moraine sand collection of "Huayan Jing" volume 73, the title painting occupies a four-and-a-half-fold face, the right half is engraved with "Gaotai Fa Tu", and the left half is "Wanshou Hall Survey Map", the form is almost indistinguishable from the Title Painting of the Puning Tibetan "Theory of Liberation on the Tao". Since the Moraine Sand Collection of the Huayan Sutra was produced in the 10th year of Dade (1302), about 20 years later than the Puning Tibetan Version of the Tao of Liberation, it is inferred that it copied the "Puning Tibetan Book". 〔44〕
The above three examples of Mongolian and Yuan dynasty engraved Buddhist texts have the intervention of ethnic minorities (Uighurs, Tibetans, and Dangxiang people), or as providers, or as abbots, but the title paintings still follow the "Gaotai Dharma Map" originally used in the Lotus Sutra, reflecting their recognition of this "standard model" of sutra Buddhist paintings created by Song Dynasty craftsmen.
conclusion
In summary, books are an important part of the exchanges between ancient civilizations, but the popularity of illustrated Buddhist books is relatively late, which is a new category of East Asian cultural exchanges in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the culture of the two Zhejiang regions centered on Hangzhou at this stage is particularly developed, which is the source of the spread of cultural elements to the outside world.
Five generations later, the illustrated Lotus Sutra became popular everywhere, but the traditional fresco form was not suitable for shrinking into the scrolls, so northern Song painters created a form of "Gaotai Fa Tu" suitable for the opening of the scroll, and it also coincided with the beliefs of the Ling Vulture Mountain (耆阇崛崛山/姞栗陁羅矩咤山). Among the surviving cultural relics, he Zizhiben's Lotus Sutra in the fourth year of the Northern Song Dynasty (1044) first used this new form of imagery. In the Southern Song Dynasty, the title paintings of the Lotus Sutra, expressed in the "Gaotai Dharma Map", were popular in the two Zhejiang regions, and a number of well-made engraving prints emerged, with an unusually stable style of title paintings. As the center of the engraving and printing industry at that time, the title painting style popular in the two Zhejiang regions soon spread to the surrounding areas and countries, from the land to the west to the Western Xia and Dali countries, from the sea to the east to Japan, becoming the "standard model" of East Asian sutra scroll Buddhist painting at that time. However, at that time, Dali and Japan were still in the era of "writing books/picture books", so the reverse influence phenomenon of "printmaking" to "picture books" appeared, which provided a useful supplement to the existing research that only emphasized the one-way influence relationship from "picture books" to "prints". In the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty, the "Gaotai Dharma Map" was still popular throughout China, appearing again in form as a picture book, and at the same time used in embroidery, expanding the theme beyond the Lotus Sutra, and even spread to Turpan in Xinjiang, and flourished in the Goryeo court.
Another point to add, this "Gaotai Dharma" performance mode is one of the most characteristics of The Han Chinese Buddhist painting style, originally tailored for the Chinese "Lotus Sutra", but also suitable for other Chinese scrolls or sutra folding Buddhist books, which determines its popularity, although after the introduction to northwest China, there have been a small number of examples of Western Xia and Uighur Buddhist texts, but it is mainly spread in East Asia where Chinese Buddhism is popular, reflecting the deep prescriptiveness of the existence of language and book forms in image dissemination. (This article is the phased result of the 2019 National Social Science Foundation Art Project "Research on the Art of the Five Dynasties of Song, Liao, Western Xia, and Fahua", project number 19BF089)
exegesis:
[1] See Zhang Guangda, "On Several Characteristics of Cultural Exchanges between the Central Plains and the Western Regions in the Sui and Tang Dynasties", Journal of Peking University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), No. 4, 1985, pp. 1-13.
[2] For example, in 1979, the Nara National Museum held a major exhibition of "Hokke Sutra Art" and published a catalogue of "HokkeKei Fine Arts" (Nara National Museum, 1979). Another example is The Hokasaku Sutra (の美术, 1981), edited by Yasaku Kurata and Yoshiro Tamura (の成 Publishing House, 1981), which comprehensively introduces various works of art related to the Hokke Sutra from the Heian to the Muromachi period, including disguised forms, mandalas, and sutra Scrolls of Buddha paintings.
[3] In his study of the Lotus Sutra, He Shizhe pointed out that the theme of the two Buddhas sitting side by side "is not found in India and Central Asia, but may be a Chinese creation... After the Middle And Tang Dynasties, the two Buddhas and the seated statue became a symbol of the Lotus Sutra." He Shizhe, "The Complete Collection of Dunhuang Grottoes and the Picture Scrolls of the Lotus Sutra", Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2000, p. 13.
[4] A detailed reading of Pan Guiming and Wu Zhongwei' General History of the Tiantai Sect in China, Phoenix Publishing House, 2008, Chapter 10, "The Revival of Tiantai Buddhism in the Song Dynasty: The Controversy Between The Mountains and mountains".
[5] The National Library of China and the National Center for the Protection of Ancient Books of China, ed., Catalogue of the First National Rare Ancient Books, Vol. 1, Beijing Library Press, 2008, p. 148.
[6] A Detailed Reading of the Humble Manuscript, "Investigation of the Title Paintings of the Diamond Sutra from the Middle Tang Dynasty to the Northern Song Dynasty", World Religions Studies, No. 2, 2018, pp. 24-32.
[7] Suzhou Municipal Cultural Management Commission and Suzhou Museum, "A Batch of Cultural Relics of the Northern Song Dynasty Of five generations found in the Pagoda of Ruiguang Temple in Suzhou", Cultural Relics, No. 11, 1979, pp. 21-31.
[8] [Tang] Xuanzang, The Original Works of debaters, Ji Xianlin et al., annotated the second volume of the Annotations on the Western Regions of the Tang Dynasty, Zhonghua Bookstore, 2000 edition, p. 725.
[9] Cui Wei, "Northern Song Dynasty Buddhist Scriptures Unearthed from Song Pagoda, Xinxian County, Shandong Province", Cultural Relics, No. 12, 1982, p. 40.
[10] [United States] Huang Shishan, "Media Transformation and Sub-Mold Design Seen in Buddhist Printmaking in the Tang and Song Dynasties", in Yan Juanying and Shi Shouqian, eds., "The Han Jin and Tang and Song Dynasties in Art History", Stone Publishing Co., Ltd., 2014 edition, p. 406.
[11] Su Bai said in "Engraving and Printing in the Tang and Song Dynasties" (Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1999, p. 84): "From the large number of existing Southern Song Dynasty engraving books and prints, it can be seen that the engraving and printing industry in the Southern Song Dynasty was a period of comprehensive development... The large number of engravings, the high skill, and the wide range of printed copies are not only unprecedented, but even in some respects, it is difficult to compare with the Ming and Qing dynasties. ”
[12] The age of the engraving is mainly based on other books engraved by Chen Zhong and Chen Gao, and read Fan Bangjin's "Continuation of the Chinese Book of the Library of Congress", Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2011 edition, pp. 256, 257.
[13] The information in the table is mainly derived from the following sources: Ge Wanzhang's Catalogue of the Lotus Sutra of the Myofa Lotus Sutra, Taipei National Palace Museum, 1995 edition; Zhou Xinhui's Collection of Ancient Chinese Buddhist Prints, Xueyuan Publishing House, 1998; Lin Baiting's "Daguan: Special Exhibition of Song Edition Books", Taipei National Palace Museum 2006 edition; Li Zhitan's Complete Collection of Chinese Prints: Buddhist Prints, Forbidden City Publishing House, 2008 edition; Nara National Museum's "Sacred Lands: 1300 Years of Japanese Religion", Nara National Museum, 2009; Zheng Zhenduo, Catalogue of the History of Chinese Printmaking, China Bookstore, 2012; Weng Lianxi and Li Hongbo, eds., Complete Chinese Buddhist Printmaking, Vol. 2, China Bookstore, 2014.
[14] Catalogue of Exhibits of Chinese Printed Books, Beijing Library, 1952 Edition, Social and Cultural Undertakings Administration Bureau, Ministry of Culture, Central People's Government, exhibits 50.
[15] Su Bai, "Engraving and Printing in the Tang and Song Dynasties", Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1999 edition, p. 85.
[16] The St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Ethnic Studies of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and the Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, vol. 1, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1996, pp. 1-49, 241-324.
[17] The Russian-Tibetan BlackWater City Literature was revealed, vol. 1, p. 1.
[18] Formerly revealed "Russian-Tibetan Black Water City Literature", vol. 1, p. 270.
〔19〕Anne Saliceti-Collins, Xi Xia Buddhist Woodblock Prints Excavated in KharaKhoto: A Case Study of Transculturation in East Asia, Eleventh-thirteenth Centuries, MA thesis, University of Washington, 2007, pp. 56.
〔20〕ibid, pp. 152-153.
〔21〕Shih-shan Susan Huang, Media Transfer and Modular Construction: The Printing of Lotus Sutra Frontispieces in Song China, Ars Orientalis, 41 (2011), pp. 146.
[22] For detailed reading [Sun] Yuxiang of the Yu clan and Xiaochuan, "Ten Kings and Seven Classics of the Seven Classics scroll", see "Western Cultural Studies , Volume 5 , Central Culture " , 1991 , Pp. 243-283 ; Dunhuang Turpan Studies, vol. 15, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing 2015 edition, pp. 53-93.
[23] [United States] Huang Shishan, "Media Transformation and Sub-Mold Design Seen in Buddhist Printmaking in the Tang and Song Dynasties", in Yan Juanying and Shi Shouqian, eds., "The Han And Jin dynasties and the Changes of the Tang and Song Dynasties in Art History", Stone Publishing Co., Ltd., 2014 edition, p. 392.
[24] Nara National Museum, "Sacred Land Ningbo: The Origin of 1300 Years of Japanese Buddhism", Nara National Museum 2009 edition, 图 edition 74.
[25] Nagarjuna's Treatise on the Great Wisdom, Vol. III: "It is a vulture on the top of the mountain, and the people of Wang Shecheng saw that it resembled a vulture, and it was rumored that Vulture Mountain was called Vulture Mountain because of its name." Taisho Zang, vol. 25, p. 76.
〔26〕Marsha Weidner, Latter Days of the Law: Images of Chinese Buddhism, 850-1850, University of Hawaii Press, 1994, Plate 20.
〔27〕Wai-kam Ho, Eight Dynasties of Chinese Painting, Cleveland Museum of Art, 1981, pp. 65; Eugene Y. Wang, Shaping the Lotus Sutra: Buddhist Visual Culture in Medieval China, University of Washington Press, 2005, pp. 240.
[28][Sun] Sudo Hirotoshi, Hokke Sutra Sutras and Their Solemnity, Chuo Koban Bijo Shuppan 2015, No.
[29] See humble article "A Study on the Title Painting of cleveland's Golden Book of the Lotus Sutra", Journal of the Palace Museum, No. 2, 2017.
[30] [Japanese] Fei Tian Lu Mei, Yan Juanying et al. translation of "Yun Xiang Rui Statue: A Study of Buddhist Art in the Early Tang Dynasty", National Taiwan University Press Center, 2018 edition, p. 375.
[31] He Shizhe, The Complete Collection of Dunhuang Grottoes and the Scrolls of the Lotus Sutra (Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2000), p. 17: "The Spirit Vultures of Cave 420 did not paint a general description, but instead highlighted the Spirit Vulture Mountain, and in the name of the Spirit Vulture, painted the mountain into the shape of a bird, which was brilliantly conceived." This is the only example in the Dunhuang Fahua Sutra, which is extremely precious. ”
[32][Sun] Oya Tokujo Ryo, Ningraku Ko-elected and Bessin,1976 edition, 图52-58.
[33] Ge Wanzhang, Catalogue of the Lotus Sutra of the Myofa Lotus, Taipei National Palace Museum, 1995, plate 13.
[34] The National Library of China and the National Center for the Protection of Ancient Books of China, ed., Catalogue of the Third Batch of National Rare Ancient Books, Vol. 2, National Library Press, 2012, pp. 134-135.
[35] Huang Chunhe and Yan Guofan, "The Lotus Sutra of The Embroidery of the Yuan Dynasty", Collector, No. 6, 2000, pp. 40-43.
[36] Zhuang Heng, "Yuan Dynasty Embroidery [Miaofa Lotus Sutra] Volume", Cultural Relics, No. 1, 1992, pp. 83-85.
[37] [Sun] Junichi Kikutake and Hiroshi Yoshida, eds., Goryeo Paintings (Asahi Press Society, 1981 edition), Figure 67 (Mahayana Temple Collection), Figure 68 (Tenrenji Temple Collection), Figure 69 (Haga-ji Temple Collection), Figure 70 (Nabeshima Hokukai Collection), Figure 71 (Nezu Museum Collection), Figure 72 (Collection of Northeastern University Affiliated Library).
〔38〕Pak Youngsook, The Korean Art Collection in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, in Judith Smith ed., Arts of Korea, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999, pp. 436-440.
[39] The views of Park Young-sook and Wong Shi-san have not been published, and I hereby explain them as I have learned of them in my exchanges with them.
[40] [Sun] Kitamura Takashi, "On the Map of the Mengsusi Family's Support", Yuanshi Series, No. 5, China Social Science Publishing House, 1993, pp. 9-12; Dang Baohai, "Thirteenth-Century Fear of the Wu'er Mengsusu Family Support Tukao", Eurasian Academic Journal, No. 2, Zhonghua Bookstore, 2000 Edition, pp. 139-152.
[41] Former Jie Dang Baohai, "Thirteenth Century Fearful Wu'er Mengsusu Family Support Tu Kao", p. 147.
[42] The time of publication of "Puning Zang" is widely disputed, read He Mei and Wei Wenxing's "Examination of the Sculpture and Seal of the Yuan Dynasty "Puning Zang", Buddhist Studies, No. 8, 1999, pp. 210-218.
[43] The National Library of China and the National Center for the Protection of Ancient Books of China, ed., Catalogue of the Second Batch of National Rare Ancient Books, Vol. 3, National Library Press, 2010, p. 106.
[44] When analyzing the title painting of the Huayan Sutra in the Moraine Sand Collection, Li Zhitan pointed out: "This picture was originally a title painting of the first volume of the Puning Tibetan Edition of the Treatise on the Tao of Liberation... Later, this figure was used at the beginning of volume 73 of the Dafang Guangfo Huayan Sutra of the Moraine Sand Collection. Li Zhitan, Complete Chinese Prints: Buddhist Prints, Forbidden City Press, 2008, p. 47. For the era of the Puning Tibetan edition of the "Theory of Liberation on the Tao", see Lai Tianbing's "Jiangnan or Western Xia- The Age, Content and Illustration of the Title Painting of the Inscription of the Daoist Inscription of the Sect Leader of the White Cloud Sect", see Du Jianlu," Xixia Studies, vol. 9, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2014, p. 238.
Zhang Jianyu is an associate professor at the School of Arts of Chinese Min University and deputy director of the Institute of Buddhist Art of Chinese Min University
(This article was originally published in Art Observation, No. 2, 2021)