1. At present, there are about 1.5 million kinds of animals known, which are divided into two categories: vertebrates and invertebrates according to whether they have or without spines.
2. Invertebrate species: coelenterates, flat animals, linear animals, link animals, mollusks, arthropods. Vertebrate species: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals.
3. Coelenterates and flat animals
(1) The body of the coelenterate is radiatively symmetrical, the body surface has thorn cells (toxins in it), and there is no anus in the mouth, such as jellyfish, anemone, polyps, and hydra (fresh water); the body of the hydra is composed of endoderm and ectoderm. The endoderm forms the digestive chamber. The hydra has the most spines on the tentacles.
(2) Flat animals are symmetrical on both sides of the body, the dorsal abdomen is flat, and there is no anus; most parasitic life such as schistosomiasis, tapeworm, and chinese testicular flukes; a few free life such as planarians. The planarian body consists of the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.
4. Linear animals and link animals
(1) The body of the linear animal is slender and cylindrical; the body surface has a stratum corneum, an anus, and anus. The categories include parasitic life such as roundworms, pinworms, hookworms, filariasis, and nematodes; free-living such as caenorhabditis elegans.
(2) Why roundworms can parasitize in the small intestine: there is a stratum corneum on the surface of the body, which plays a protective role; the digestive tube structure is simple, feeding on the semi-digested chyme in the small intestine; there are developed reproductive organs and strong reproductive ability.
(3) Prevention of ascariasis: pay attention to personal hygiene; do not drink raw water; wash fruits; wash your hands before meals and after defecation; and dispose of feces well.
(4) The whole body of the link animal is cylindrical, composed of many similar body segments, and assisted by bristles or wart feet. Such as earthworms, sand silkworms, leeches.
(5) Earthworms live in humus-rich moist soil, through the combination of muscles and bristles to make the body squirm, breathing against the body wall. The head and tail can be judged by the ring belt being born at the front of the body (the ring belt is also called the reproductive belt). The proximity loop is the front end.
(6) The significance of the earthworm body segmentation: it can make the earthworm's body move flexibly and easily.
(7) In the experiment of observing earthworms, why should we often use a wet cotton ball soaked in water to gently rub the surface of the earthworm body to keep the surface moist for normal breathing.
(8) After heavy rain, earthworms will climb to the ground for reasons: Earthworms are forced to climb to the surface to breathe.
(9) Leeches have no bristles and no wart feet; sand silkworms have wart feet; earthworms have bristles.
5. Molluscs (the second largest group of animals) and arthropods (the first largest group of animal kingdoms)
(1) Mollusks have soft bodies, have mantle membranes, mostly have shells, and the motile organs are the feet (brachiopods, gastropods and axe feet). Most have shells such as scallops (axe feet), snails (gastropods), stone turtles, octopus (brachiopods). Some shells disappear such as squid (sea mantis), octopus, and abalone (stone cassia); the shells of mollusks are formed by secretions from the mantle membrane. River mussels and pearl oysters produce pearls, which are formed by secretions from the mantle membrane. Breathe with gills and feed with inlet and outlet pipes.
(2) The characteristics of arthropods are: the body is composed of many body segments, and the body surface has exoskeletons, feet and antennae segments. Arthropods are the largest group of animals (insects are the most diverse and the only flying animal among invertebrates, and therefore the most widely distributed).
(3) The insect body is divided into three parts: head, chest and abdomen, with a pair of antennae, three pairs of feet, and generally 2 pairs of wings.
(4) The exoskeleton of an insect is a tough shell that covers the surface of the insect's body, which has the effect of protecting and supporting the soft internal organs and preventing the evaporation of water in the body. But the exoskeleton does not grow with the growth of the animal's body, so there is a phenomenon of molting.
6. Fish
(1) The main characteristics of fish are: suitable for living in the water; the body surface is scaled; breathing with gills; there is a spine in the body, swimming through the swing of the tail and trunk and the coordination of the fins.
(2) The two most important characteristics of fish adapting to life in the water: (1) they can rely on swimming to obtain food and defend against predators. (2) Be able to breathe in water.
(3) Seahorses, loach, yellow eels, sturgeon, etc. are fish, whales, dolphins, seals are mammals, and turtles, turtles, turtles, and turtles are reptiles.
(4) The four major fish are: bluefish, silver carp, grass carp and bighead carp.
(5) The shape of the fish is streamlined, and its role is: to reduce swimming resistance and is suitable for swimming. The body of the fish is divided into three parts: head, trunk and tail. The mucus secreted by the scales also reduces resistance.
(6) When swimming, fish mainly rely on the left and right swing of the body trunk and tail fin to generate forward momentum, and other fins play an auxiliary role. When the fish is in motion, the dorsal fin, pectoral fin, and abdominal fin all have the effect of maintaining balance, and the tail fin has the effect of determining the direction of movement of the fish.
(7) The sensory organs of fish are lateral lines (feeling the flow of water, determining direction). Even without eyes can discern the reason for the direction.
(8) The fish's respiratory organs are bright red gills because they contain rich capillaries; gill filaments are both numerous and fine, and their role is to greatly increase the contact area with water and promote gas exchange between blood and the outside world.
7. Amphibians: larvae live in water, breathe with gills, and develop into adults through metamorphosis, most of the adults live on land, can also swim in the water, breathe with lungs, and use skin to assist breathing. Representative animals: frogs, toads, giant salamanders, salamanders. Because amphibians cannot reproduce and develop without water, most of them live in water or on wet land. IVF. Amphibians are a taxon of aquatic to terrestrial biomass.
8. Reptiles: the body surface is covered with scales or nails (to protect the body and prevent water evaporation), breathe with lungs, lay eggs on land, and have a hard shell on the surface of the eggs. Crocodiles, turtles, turtles, snakes, and chameleons are all reptiles. Reptiles are truly adapted to terrestrial life because of their complete dependence on water. In vivo fertilization.
9. Bird (double breath)
(1) Characteristics of birds suitable for flight: (1) The body is streamlined (which can reduce the resistance of the air when flying) (2) The body surface is covered with feathers, the forelimbs become wings (3) the chest has a towering keel process, the long bone is hollow (filled with air) (4) the chest muscles are developed (5) the food intake is large and digested quickly. (6) The heart has four chambers, fast number of beats, perfect circulatory system structure, and strong ability to transport nutrients and oxygen. (7) There are developed air bags, which can not only reduce weight but also form a unique double breath with the lungs, and also play a role in heat dissipation.
(2) Except for a few birds such as ostriches and penguins, most birds are good at flying.
(3) Chickens, ducks and geese belong to birds.
(4) The air bag has the function of storing air and dissipating heat; the air bag has the function of storing food.
10. Mammals: viviparous, nursing (high survival rate of offspring), body surface coat, teeth have incisors, molars and canine teeth differentiation. Constant body temperature and other characteristics. Such as rabbits, giant pandas.
(1) Thermostatic animals are animals that can maintain a constant body temperature through their own regulation, so that the body temperature does not change with changes in the outside world, including birds and mammals. Conversely, animals whose body temperature changes with changes in ambient temperature are warmer animals, such as snakes, insects, etc. The significance of constant temperature: to reduce dependence on the external environment, expand the range of life and distribution.
(2) The teeth are differentiated into incisors, molars and canine teeth. The incisors are chisel-like for cutting off food, and the molar chewing surface is wide and suitable for grinding food. Mammals such as wolves and tigers also have sharp canine teeth that are used to tear food (and also for attacking predation).
(3) As shown in the figure: A is the tooth of the rabbit; B is the tooth of the wolf; (1) it is the incisor; (2) it is the molar; (3) it is the canine tooth.
11. The mammalian motor system consists of bones, joints and muscles. Bones are made up of multiple pieces of bone. Bones and joints make up the bones.
12. Skeletal muscle includes the thicker abdomen in the middle and the thinner tendons at both ends (milky white), and the two ends of a group of muscles are attached to different bones. Skeletal muscle has the property of contraction after being stimulated by nerves.
13. Skeletal muscles can only contract and pull the bone and cannot push the bone away, so there are at least two groups of muscles connected to the bone, and cooperate with each other to complete various activities [when the elbow is flexed, the biceps muscle is contracted, the triceps muscle is diastolic, and the elbow is the opposite]
14. Natural sagging of hands, diceps diastolic, triceps diastolic; Lift the weight vertically up with both hands or grasp the horizontal bar with both hands The body sagging naturally, the biceps muscles contract, and the triceps muscles contract.
15. The function of the motion system: movement, support, protection. In exercise, the nervous system plays a regulatory role, the bone plays the role of leverage, the joint plays the role of the fulcrum (also known as the pivotal role), and the skeletal muscle plays the role of power. It can be seen that the completion of a movement by the human body must have the regulation of the nervous system, the joint participation of bones, skeletal muscles and joints, and the coordination of multiple groups of muscles.
16. The relationship between bones, joints and muscles: Skeletal muscles receive stimulation from nerves - skeletal muscle contractions - pulling the bone to which it is attached - moving around the joint, so the body produces movement.
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The motor system is controlled and regulated by the nervous system, as well as the digestive system, the respiratory system, and the circulatory system to complete the movement (energy comes from the decomposition of organic matter). The athletic ability is developed, which is conducive to predatory and avoidance of enemies to adapt to the complex and changeable environment.
18. The joint is composed of three parts: the joint surface, the joint capsule and the joint cavity. The articular surface includes the joint head and joint fossa. The structural characteristics that make the joint firm are: the joint capsule and the ligaments inside and outside the capsule. The structural characteristics of making joint movement flexible are that the joint surface is covered with a layer of smooth surface joint cartilage, and the inner surface of the joint capsule can also secrete synovial fluid, which can reduce the friction of the joint surface between the two bones during exercise and cushion the vibration during movement.
19. Dislocation: The joint head slips out of the joint socket.
20. The movement of animals depends on a certain structure.
21. According to the different behaviors, animal behaviors can be divided into aggressive behavior, feeding behavior, defensive behavior, reproduction behavior, migration behavior, etc.; and according to different ways of obtaining, it can be divided into congenital behavior and learning behavior.
22. Congenital behavior refers to the behavior that animals are born with and determined by the genetic material in the body, which is essential for maintaining the most basic survival, such as spider weaving webs, bees collecting honey, and ants making nests. Learning behavior refers to the behavior obtained by life experience and learning on the basis of genetic factors, through the role of the environment. The higher the animal, the stronger the ability to learn, the stronger the ability to adapt to the environment, and the more meaningful it is to survive
23. Social behavior: animals living in camp groups (Note: Not all animals living in camp groups have social behaviors, such as locust groups. For example: termites, bees, baboons, etc.
24. Most social behaviors have the following characteristics: (1) a certain organization is often formed within the group, (2) there is a clear division of labor among members, and some also form a hierarchy.
25. Communication (information exchange): The phenomenon that individual animals in a group send certain messages to other individuals, and the individuals who receive the information produce certain behavioral reactions. The division of labor and cooperation requires the exchange of information at any time, and the communication methods include movements, sounds, and smells.
26, the use of extracted or synthetic extrasexual hormones as a lure, can trap agricultural pests; put a certain amount of sexual attractants in the farmland, interfere with the communication between male and female rush, is the male insect can not judge the position of the female insect, so can not mate, so that can also achieve the purpose of controlling the number of pests.
27. Livestock are an important source of animal protein in human food.
28. The role of animals in nature: (1) maintain the ecological balance in nature (2) promote the material circulation of the ecosystem (3) help plants pollinate and spread seeds.
29. Ecological balance: The number and proportion of various organisms in the ecosystem are always maintained in a relatively stable state, which is called ecological balance.
30. There is an interdependent and mutually restrictive relationship between the food chain and the various organisms in the food web. If any of these links go wrong, it will affect the entire ecosystem.
31. The role of animals in people's lives: it can be used for human consumption, medicinal use, ornamental use, etc., and is closely related to bionics.
32, bionic: imitate certain structures and functions of organisms to invent and create a variety of instruments and equipment methods. Bionic examples: "anti-load suits" worn by astronauts, cold lights, radar, thin-shelled buildings, intelligent robots.
33. A visible aggregate formed by bacteria or fungi after reproduction is called colonies.
34. Characteristics of bacterial colonies: small, smooth surface, viscous or rough and dry, white;
Fungal colony characteristics: large, fluffy, flocculent spider web-like, red, green, yellow, brown, black and other colors.
35. Methods for cultivating bacterial fungi: (1) preparation medium (2) high temperature sterilization (killing the original microorganisms) (3) inoculation (4) constant temperature culture.
36. Culture medium: organic matter containing nutrients, such as mixing beef juice/soil leaching solution/milk with agar.
37. Living conditions of bacteria and fungi: moisture, suitable temperature, organic matter (nutrients), a certain living space, etc. In addition, some require aerobic, while others are anaerobic. Most bacteria are nourished in the form of isooxide.
38, hot summer, food is easy to spoil, gastroenteritis many people, the reason is: hot summer, air humidity, high temperature, suitable for bacteria, fungus reproduction and growth, food preservation improper or too long time, will be contaminated by bacteria, fungus and deterioration, people eat spoiled food will be gastroenteritis.
39, washed and dried clothes will not grow mold, and dirty clothes dirty shoes are easy to grow mold, the reason is: washed dry clothes clean and dry, lack of nutrients, not suitable for the propagation of fungi, so washing and drying clothes are not easy to grow mold; on the contrary, dirty clothes provide a suitable growth environment for fungi, so dirty clothes protocol mold.
40. When making kimchi, cover and seal with water, the purpose is not to let the air enter the altar, and to maintain the hypoxic environment in the altar, because lactic acid bacteria can only decompose the organic matter in vegetables into lactic acid in an oxygen-free environment.
41. In the late 17th century, the Dutchman Levine Hooke invented the microscope and discovered bacteria; in the 19th century, Pasteur, the "father of microbiology", used the gooseneck bottle experiment (boiling broth, killing the bacteria in it - after a year the broth is still clarified, no bacteria multiply - breaking the bottleneck - after a day the broth becomes turbid, bacteria multiply in the broth) to prove that bacteria do not occur naturally, but are produced by existing bacteria.
42. Pasteur's achievements: gooseneck bottle experiment; discovery of lactic acid bacteria and yeast; pasteurization (using the method of high temperature sterilization); discovery of ways to prevent surgical infection.
43. Bacterial characteristics: tiny, rod-shaped, spherical, spiral-shaped and other forms, without formed nuclei. Most of the nutritional methods are heterotrophic and decomposition.
44. The mode of reproduction of bacteria is division and reproduction. It belongs to prokaryotes. Some bacteria can form dormant bodies that are more resistant to adverse environments, called spores.
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Structural characteristics of bacteria (single cell) (right panel): the basic structure includes: C cell wall, B cell membrane, E cytoplasm, A area with DNA concentration, no formed nucleus; no chloroplasts; subsidiary structure: some bacteria have D pod membranes (protective effect) outside the cell wall, some bacteria have F flagella (used to swim in water); some bacteria form spores (light, dormant bodies resistant to harsh environments) late in growth and development.
46. When the doctor does surgery, he burns the knife with fire, mainly to destroy the dormant body spores of bacteria.
47. Fungal characteristics: the fungal body is composed of hyphae formed by many cell connections; each cell has a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus, and there is no chloroplast, and the nutritional mode of the fungus is heterotrophic;
48. The mode of reproduction of fungi: spore reproduction, belonging to eukaryotes. Yeast germs reproduce in budding.
49. Types of fungi: single-celled fungi, such as yeast; multicellular fungi, such as penicillium, Aspergillus, mushrooms, etc.
50. Penicillium: blue-green, with spores of mycelium into a broom shape; Aspergillus: black brown (sometimes yellow, green and other colors), the spores are born at the top of radial hyphae.
51. Various fungi: mushrooms, fungus, white fungus, ganoderma lucidum.
52. The spores of mushrooms are produced in the folds of bacteria.
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Bacteria and fungi are distinguished by bacteria that do not have formed nuclei.
54. In the right figure, A is a bacterium, B is a yeast, and C is a virus.
55. The role of bacterial fungi in nature: (1) Participate in the material cycle as a decomposer. (2) Cause diseases in animals, plants and people. For example, streptococcus causes tonsillitis, and fungi cause ringworm and wheat leaf rust. Note: Beriberi is not related to fine and fungal (caused by vitamin B1 deficiency) (3) Symbiosis with animals and plants. Such as fungi and algae symbiosis to form lichens. Another example: rhizobia and legumes. (4) Treat insects with bacteria such as: Bacillus thuringiensis.
56. The use of bacteria and fungi by human beings includes four aspects: food production, food preservation, disease prevention and control, and environmental protection.
57. Fermentation is the process by which organic matter is decomposed into certain products by yeast or other fungi at a certain temperature.
58. The causes of food spoilage ------- caused by bacteria and fungi decomposing organic matter in food and growing and multiplying in it.
59, the principle of food preservation------- kill bacteria and fungi or inhibit their growth and reproduction.
60. Common preservation methods: "Pasteur" disinfection method (according to the principle of high temperature sterilization), tank method (according to the principle of high temperature disinfection and prevention of contact with bacteria and fungi).
61, freezing method, refrigeration method (according to the principle of low temperature can inhibit bacteria).
62. Vacuum packaging method (according to the principle of destroying the living environment of aerobic bacteria).
63. Drying and smoking method, pickling method, dehydration method (according to the principle of removing water to prevent the growth of bacteria and fungi).
64. Antibiotics (such as penicillin). Substances produced by fungi that inhibit bacteria.
65. Methane bacteria can decompose these wastes into carbon dioxide and hydrogen when aerobic, and combine them into methane, which purifies the sewage.
66, when making steamed buns or bread, using yeast, the carbon dioxide gas it produces will form many small holes in the dough, making the steamed buns or breads expand and soft, and the alcohol contained in the dough is volatilized during the steaming process.
67. Yeast should be used to make steamed buns, lactic acid bacteria for making yogurt, lactic acid bacteria for kimchi, and koji or yeast for sake brewing.
68. Comparison of animal, plant and bacterial cells
69. The reproductive mode of yeast: budding reproduction, spore reproduction in special cases
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Types of viruses: Depending on the cells in which the virus parasitizes, the virus can be divided into (1) animal viruses (influenza viruses) (2) plant viruses (tobacco mosaic viruses) (3) bacteriophages (bacteriophages that are specifically parasitic in bacteria, such as escherichia coli)
71. Viruses have no cellular structure and consist of protein shells and genetic material inside.
72. When the virus only parasitizes in living cells, it relies on the genetic information in its own genetic material and uses the material in the cell to create a new virus. If you leave the living cell, it will become a crystal.
73. The way the virus reproduces is replication.
74. The relationship between the virus and humans: harm: influenza, hepatitis, AIDS are all caused by the virus. Benefits: Making vaccines; genetic engineering allows viruses to carry certain genes from plants and animals into normal cells for transgenic or gene therapy purposes.
75. The difference between viruses and fungi is that viruses do not have cellular structures.
76. Basis of taxonomy: characteristics of organisms in terms of morphological structure and physiological functions
77. The order of simple to complex taxa of plants is algae, bryophytes, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. The classification of plants mainly observes their morphological structure.
78. In addition to comparing the morphological structure, the classification of animals often also needs to compare the physiological functions of animals. According to the presence or absence of invertebrates, it is divided into vertebrates and invertebrates. The order of vertebrates from simple to complex is fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals The main taxa of invertebrate zoology are coelenterates, flats, linear animals, molluscs, link animals, and arthropods.
79. The taxonomic units, from largest to smallest, are boundaries, phylums, orders, families, genera, and species, of which species are the most basic units of classification. The largest taxonomic unit of homology is the larger the cluster, the more species it contains, but the smaller the degree of similarity between species, the fewer common features and the more distant the kinship;
80. Linnaeus' classification method: double name method.
81. The connotation of biodiversity: it includes three levels: biological species diversity (i.e., species diversity), genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
82. The essence of species diversity is genetic diversity.
83. China is one of the countries with the richest biological diversity. Among them, bryophytes, ferns and seed plants are second only to Brazil and Colombia, ranking third in the world. China is the country with the richest gymnosperms and is known as the "hometown of gymnosperms".
84. A typical example of improving crop varieties using genetic diversity: the United States introduced wild soybeans from China to hybridize with local varieties to cultivate excellent varieties resistant to soybean wilting; Chinese scientist Yuan Longping used wild rice to hybridize with ordinary cultivated rice many times to cultivate new hybrid rice varieties with high yields.
85. The reduction or extinction of the number of a certain organism will inevitably affect the ecosystem in which it is located; when the ecosystem changes drastically, it will also accelerate the diversity of biological species and the loss of genetic diversity. Therefore, protecting the habitat of living organisms and protecting the diversity of ecosystems are fundamental measures to protect biodiversity.
86. Causes of threats to biodiversity: alteration and destruction of the ecological environment; predatory exploitation and utilization; environmental pollution; impacts of alien species.
87. The "living fossil" known as the plant is the silver fir; the "living fossil" of the Mesozoic animal is the Yangtze crocodile; the Chinese pigeon tree (珙桐) is also the "living fossil" of the plant kingdom.
88. The establishment of nature reserves is the most effective measure for the conservation of biodiversity.