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In the Second Opium War, the artillery of the British and French coalition caused heavy casualties to the Qing army, in fact, the most lethal thing was not the quality of the artillery and shells, but more importantly, the Western artillery system, so that the Western artillery could play the best effect, which was the most important reason for the heavy casualties of the Qing army.
1. Determine the advantages and disadvantages of Western artillery technology
Material:
On the whole, the Western iron artillery is mainly gray iron, and its quality is inevitably better than that of the Qing army's artillery, which is mainly white iron. All or most of the carbon in the gray iron appears in the form of flake graphite (free carbon), and the fractures are grayish-dark.
Due to the precipitation of graphite, the volume expansion is caused, and the solidification shrinkage value can be reduced. Therefore, when casting the iron cannon, the solidification shrinkage rate of the cannon body is small, which makes the iron cannon very regular. When the cast iron is cutting, the lubrication and chip breaking of graphite make the gray cast iron have good machinability; The melting point of gray cast iron is lower than that of steel, the fluidity is good, and the graphite with large specific volume is precipitated during the solidification process, which reduces the shrinkage, so it has good casting process and can cast parts with complex shapes.
Gray iron has good fluidity and a smaller tendency to disperse and shrink than white iron, which can improve the quality of castings. These excellent characteristics are not available in white iron.
Casting:
The Western-made cannon adopts sand casting technology, which is highly efficient. The sand mold can be used repeatedly, the same mold can be made many times, and the same gun can be cast in batches, which brings convenience to machining. Second, the sand mold has good air permeability, which eliminates the need to bake the sand mold for a long time, and reduces the defects such as loose castings, porosity, and sand holes. The third is to cast a solid cannon to avoid processes such as making cores and fixing cores. The four cannons were cast in wax molds, eliminating fan lines and having a smooth surface.
Processing:
Western iron cannons are mostly gray cast iron, as well as malleable cast iron, mild steel, etc., which makes processing possible. In terms of processing power, at first, it was waterpower and horsepower, and then it was changed to a drilling machine driven by a steam engine to drill the iron cannon on the boring machine, which can not only improve the efficiency of cleaning the core and processing the inner chamber, but also finish the solid casting, so that the cannon chamber is smooth and in a straight line, and the quality of the iron cannon is greatly improved.
2. The level of Western shells
By the middle of the 19th century, unlike the Chinese clay mold casting shells, the Western cast iron bullet method adopted the wax mold casting technology on a large scale, "the bullets are cast with wax molds, round as the earth, and the waist is not slight", which naturally reduces the clearance value between the gun chamber and can improve the muzzle velocity and lethality of the artillery.
There are several types of Western artillery shells, such as spherical solid shells (which are divided into two types of round bombs and scorching round bullets), chain shells, shotgun shells (which are also divided into three types of iron barrel bombs, pineapple bullets, and tower shells), and spherical flowering explosion bombs (which are also divided into two types of bombs and fire bombs).
Spherical solid shells can be divided into ordinary spherical solid shells and scorching wrought iron shells, wrought iron shells are generally used in small-caliber artillery, and large-caliber guns are used less.
Western artillery shells rely on certain firing skills and the power of the shells themselves against the enemy.
For example, spherical solid artillery shells are often fired in land warfare using the "drifting" firing method, so it is very important for the vanguard to choose the correct position, and the rear artillery must maintain a certain angle, so that the shells can not only pass over the air of their own advancing troops, but also be launched at the position of the enemy in front.
After being fired, the projectile flies almost parallel to the ground in order to destroy the enemy's formation after hitting the target.
For example, in the Battle of Bali Bridge on September 21, 1860, "the French army first fired several fused shells with reduced altitude, which flew close to the ground and exploded at the feet of the Qing army's war horses, and the Qing cavalry formation was in chaos. When the Chinese infantry came to the rescue of the cavalry, the French artillery platoon began to fire violently, and the shells blew many holes in the middle of these dense soldiers and horses.
The Qing cavalry began to show signs of retreat, although the lethality coefficient of Chinese and Western shells in this period was extremely low, and the psychological pressure on the enemy caused by the use of artillery was no less than the tactical blow, and the mental blow caused by the noise, fire and black smoke during firing was no less than the damage caused by the shells. ”
All in all, light weapons (mostly rifles) account for 86 per cent of casualties, 9 per cent for artillery and 5 per cent for bladed weapons".
From this, it can be seen that the power of artillery is mainly reflected in the ruptured shrapnel.
In the battle of the British and French forces, the spherical solid shells or spherical explosive shells of the allied forces were certainly better than those of the Qing Dynasty, but their power was not yet great enough to dominate everything.
In the middle of the 19th century, 60% of the shells fired by the Western invasion of China were mainly spherical solid shells, often at a distance of more than 1,000 meters, with the firing method of "playing in the water" and the firing of red to the enemy, in order to enhance its lethality, as for the remaining 40% of the shells, mainly used at close range, the types of barrel-shaped shotguns, grapeshit, grenade shotguns, new explosive bombs and incendiary bombs, etc., the use of strange shells, in order to enhance its destructive power, so many types and use of strange shells is the secret of the Western "artillery advantage".
In the war, when the Qing people did not have a deep understanding of the construction principles of Western artillery shells, all they could directly feel was the power of their shells. It is precisely the differences in these key points that often lead to the fatalistic tendency of defeatism in the Qing army.
3. The level of Western gun carriages
King Gustav II of Sweden (reigned 1611~1632) tried to improve the performance of field artillery in the 17th century by unifying artillery models and enhancing their mobility, especially on the battlefield.
The Frenchman Grebeauval first established the artillery system in 1732, and he became the chief of artillery after the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), and his artillery design was characterized by simplicity, maneuverability, and high firing accuracy. Its claim was approved in 1776. He reduced the caliber of field guns to three types, namely 4-pound, 8-pound, and 12-pound guns, and the clearance value was only half of the original concoction.
The cannon can be towed by human beings using shoulder harnesses.
It does not take too long for a 3.6 kg or 5.4 kg gun to go from transport to firing. In fact, it was only necessary to take some time to get the gun track from the front car to the ground.
While France made many improvements to infantry and artillery, it also brought many discussions and debates about military theory.
Griboval had a significant influence on the organizational structure of artillery, artillery tactics, artillery uniforms, and artillery schools.
For example, the transport of field artillery, which used to be the responsibility of civilian contractors, is now the exclusive responsibility of artillerymen; The tradition of craft guilds left over from the Middle Ages completely disappeared from the army, and was replaced by the formation of new divisions, with artillery standing side by side with infantry and cavalry; The effectiveness of artillery in warfare was completely predictable, and its technological advancement was seen as an important part of reforming the organization and training of the army.
"By the beginning of the French Revolutionary War in 1789, the armies of the rest of Europe were somewhat inferior to France in field artillery technology, and by the time peace was restored in 1815, all the great powers had largely caught up with the level of artillery originally used by the French, and it was not until the advent of breech guns in the 50s of the 19th century that further changes occurred."
After the 70s of the 18th century, the material of Western iron cannon was mainly gray cast iron and malleable cast iron, and the sand casting mold and solid drilling technology were adopted, and the driving force of the drill pipe became a steam engine.
In the middle of the 18th century, Western countries gradually divided the artillery of field artillery, mountain artillery, fort cannons, naval guns, etc., into categories, and the forms of artillery began to be classified into wooden frames, wheel frames, wheel and rail frames.
Among them, mountain artillery and field artillery have two large wheels and rear support frames; Turrets or fortress guns build a base, and arc tracks are mostly used to revolve around a real grinding center or virtual axis; The cannon crew is built on the track and grinding center with wheels and shafts.
Later, a front car was added to the Western field artillery vehicle. When the artillery is maneuvered or transported with the army, the front car and the gun carriage are connected in front and back, so that the two vehicles are one in front and one behind, becoming a four-wheeled gun carriage.
In 1854, the Royal Artillery consisted of 7 cavalry battalions, 12 artillery battalions and 1 rocket company. Each battalion has eight companies, each equipped with six artillery pieces, each armed with 200 rounds of ammunition when it is put into operation. On the front car with the artillery in tow there was an ammunition box with various ammunition, and the rest of the ammunition was in two boxes on the car.
At the end of the 18th century, British artillery was left unattended, far behind the artillery of other countries.
In order not to lag behind their opponents on the mainland, the British had to reform their field artillery.
In 1800, the British made a radical reform of the gun mount, which soon surpassed the French gun mount technology. The single-tailed gun mount and the front car with ammunition boxes were replaced by two-horse tandem tows, which were later adopted by most countries on the continent.
In the middle of the 19th century, the British and French invading armies were equipped with two-wheeled army gun mounts and four-wheeled pulley naval gun mounts, as well as the assistance of many auxiliary tools when firing, which contributed to the improvement of artillery mobility and firing accuracy.
4. The appearance of cavalry artillery
The 18th-century King of Prussia, Friedrich II, known as "Frederick the Great", was a genius who navigated war and managed the country. During the "Seven Years' War (1756~1763)", the concept of "cavalry artillery" was created, and each cavalry artillery company was equipped with 2 howitzers with short barrels and 6 light cannons, and the gunners and ammunitionmen of the cavalry guns marched on horseback, so that the light artillery could keep up with the rapid movement.
The popularization of the Prussian army's military system and successful experience set a new standard for the military of the whole of Europe and greatly promoted the development of the art of war.
"In 1793 the British formed the first cavalry artillery, equipping it with howitzers weighing 6-pound, 12-pound and 14-centimeter calibers. The following year, the French formed the cavalry artillery into an independent elite unit. Each artillery company has 6~8 guns, 4 officers and 72 soldiers. ”
At the same time, Sweden and Russia each formed their own cavalry artillery. Mounted artillery was developed in Europe to make artillery move quickly, especially to support cavalry, and it was usually equipped with lighter weapons than infantry to ensure its mobility.
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the development of lightweight materials and field cannons that combined firepower and mobility prompted armies to focus more than ever before on centralizing command and control of field artillery, while promoting an unprecedented concentration of firepower.
The combination of improved structural forms, tactics and technology has brought about tremendous changes in field artillery.
As evidenced by the Napoleonic Wars, field artillery played a more important role than ever on the battlefield because it was able to move around the battlefield with relative ease, concentrate fire as needed, and clear obstacles for advancing infantry.
The cavalry artillery of the Western countries consisted of the bravest and most skilled horsemen in the army, and their tactics consisted in bravery and composure.
Swift action, sudden appearance, rapid fire, readiness to shift and movement on roads difficult for cavalry were its essential qualities.
The newly created British cavalry artillery in 1800 was highly regarded and soon showed signs of bravery, swiftness and accuracy of movement.
For example, on June 22, 1860, the British ships invading China arrived in Dalian Bay, and one of them was a royal cavalry artillery company, with a total of 327 men and 195 horses:
125 1st Dragoons with 64 horses; The Sikh cavalry regiment consisted of 596 men with 476 horses.
Obviously, the men and horses here should be mounted artillerymen, otherwise the proportion of horses would not need to be so high.
5. Progress in artillery auxiliary facilities
In addition to the progress of the design of cast guns in the West, by the end of the 17th century, the accessories for loading and firing breech guns had developed relatively maturely, and the mathematical and physical knowledge required for gun operation had been reduced to concise and practical instruments or slide rules, so that the firing range at different elevation angles could be quickly estimated, and how to use the most appropriate gunpowder to hit the target more accurately.
This method of using mathematics to improve the precision of machine operation is arguably a very important feature of the modern technological revolution in the West, which is in stark contrast to China's traditional way of firing artillery based on experience.
For example, the auxiliary tools of Western artillery firing include short wooden prows, cannon brushes, ramming rods, ammunition hooks, medicine spoons, and door pins. Spiral worms were used to remove remnants from the explosion of charges, sponges and barrels were used to wash the guns after several fires, and gunners used these tools to clean the ignition ports. The cannon brush is used to scrub the barrel between firings, the powder spoon is used to measure and load bulk gunpowder when the powder bag is not used, and the ram is used to push the powder bag and shells into the gun chamber.
A gunner is holding a lit arquebus to light the gunpowder in the gunhole: a gunner (center) is pouring water into the barrel to extinguish the embers while reloading the ammunition; Another gunner was dipping the tail of the gun in wet sheepskin to cool it down.
In the middle of the 19th century, the guns of the invading ships made many elaborate improvements in the artillery system, loading, aiming, gun carriage, and ignition technology, so that the rate of fire was accelerated.
In the middle of the 19th century, European artillery fire gates switched to lightning mercury firing for ignition, which was faster and safer.
With the invention of mercury thunderate, which could be detonated by vibration in the 90s of the 18th century, Forsyth, a Scottish priest with a passion for sports, finally perfected the ignition impact system in 1807.
In 1853, the detonator was used in the ignition of field guns. The friction fire cap consists of a copper tube wound with a zigzag steel wire, a rubber rubber, and gunpowder. The percussion tube and friction fire cap were mounted at the tail of the gun, and a pull fire cable, that is, a long rope, was in contact with the last turn of the wire, or with the impact hammer. The cannon is ignited by quickly pushing the wire cable, winding the rubber, or touching the striking hammer.
The gunners also used flintlock ignition when the need to knock the detonator and friction fire cap were not available, or when the new equipment did not work.
However, arquebus ignition continued to be used in the late fifties and sixties of the 19th century.
6. The operation process of artillery is standardized
At the end of the 15th century, Western land artillery operations were more complicated, and cannon casters operated them in battle, and even in the 16th century, professional artillerymen were still imagined to have a great deal of knowledge about gun making and testing gunpowder. By 1700, such a wide range of skills was no longer necessary. The manufacture of artillery was carried out in highly developed factories, and field artillerymen only had to learn the correct operation of standard equipment.
At the end of the 19th century, the advent of European light field artillery paved the way for the development of new tactics. The number of gunners could be reduced due to the use of light equipment and the use of slings to connect the front and rear wagons of the gun carriage, allowing horses to move the field artillery wagons around the battlefield.
They eliminated the untrained gunners and retained only 12~7 out of 8 people, who had to undergo hard training in order to develop a high level of skill.
The operation of the cannon is roughly like this:
(1) The soldiers of the field artillery drive the horses with a fishhook-like tool, and stop when the artillery reaches its destination. The gunners rode forward or ran. When arriving at the destination, quickly untie the artillery carriage from the front car and roll it into the line drawn by the artillery company commander with a command knife. Usually, the artillery is spaced 12.8 meters apart, and this way of evacuation of the artillery battery makes it difficult for enemy fire to hit the artillery.
(2) While the artillery is deployed, the soldier driving the car walks a few meters and then gets out of the car and unties the front car from the horse, and the well-trained soldier can complete this task in a few seconds. After that, the horses were led to a protected area where they could be found and sheltered, as they were the main targets of enemy infantry or artillery. Without horses, the artillery could not move and could easily be captured by the enemy.
(3) If the gunner of a Napoleonic cannon is full of 8 people, commanded by 1 gunner, this gunner is the so-called gunner. Three gunners were in the front car, prepared the ammunition, carried it from the front car to the gun, cut the fuse without stopping, and then loaded it into a human shell, which was then used in a "rucksack"
Carry it to the Gun Commander's position. The gunner checks them to make sure that the shells are fitted with fuses and that the cartridges have not leaked gunpowder or suffered other damage. Subsequently, it was sent to the gun, where the shell was handed over to gunner No. 2. He also consulted the table on the front lid detailing the angles of fire required for the corresponding shells, charges and ranges, as well as the flight time of the corresponding shells. As soon as he found out the required angle of fire, he told the gunner loudly.
Four gunners were located behind the guns to the left, reloading and firing the guns under the supervision of the gunner. While the gun is placed on its gun mount, the gun commander also controls the vehicle in front, which is generally located about 20 paces behind the gun line.
(4) During the operation, all 8 gunners have specific duties, and they have to undergo long-term and arduous training in order to perform their respective duties in an orderly manner in a difficult combat environment.
After they were able to perform their duties proficiently, each gunner was trained in changing the guard with each other. The gunners should be able to continue to play with only 2 men left. In some cases, the artillery continued to fire with 1 gunner remaining.
(5) When the artillery is fired, the artillery company commander, platoon commander or artillery commander gives an order to reload the ammunition, specifying the type of shell required and stating the range at which the shell reaches the target.
The quadrant was then used to determine the angle of fire and the sight was used, while gunners No. 3 and No. 4 were ordered to adjust the guns using the hand rods at the end of the guns, and to make appropriate corrections according to the direction of the wind.
Gunner No. 1 with a projectile pusher and a gun brush walked to the left of the gun muzzle and stood still, gun No. 2 stood to the left of the muzzle ready to receive the projectiles and cartridges, and Gunner No. 3 was positioned to the right of the breech, and his main task was to protect the fire door while cleaning the gun with the gun brush during the loading process. Gunner No. 4 stood on the left side of the breech, ready to make a hole in the cartridge through the fire door, insert the pulling ignition tube after loading the cartridge, tie the pulling firing, and after hearing the command of the gunner, pull the fiery cord and fire the shell. Specifically, the shells were stuffed into the chamber by gunner No. 3, and gunner No. 4 guarded the fire door.
Gunner No. 3 quickly removed the ejector from the barrel. Gunners No. 1 and No. 2 left the artillery stand, facing inward. Gunner No. 3 returned to his original position, and gunner No. 4 took out the firing tube, hooked the firing tube with the firing rope and inserted it into the fire door, and then left the gun, keeping his eyes away from the gun (so as to avoid the hook hitting his face), picked up the firing rope and pulled the trigger and waited for the firing command.
(6) The heat, noise, and black smoke produced when the shell is fired make it difficult to determine the exact time of launch. Once the shell has been fired, it is necessary to assess whether the shell landed accurately in order to make corrections for the next launch. While the gunners observed the target, the gunners rolled the guns back to their positions, corrected the firing angles, and the firing was repeated until the officer's order to stop firing was received.
7. Training of Western artillery
During the "Thirty Years' War" (1618~1648), King Gustavus II of Sweden used artillery as an independent branch for the first time, and tried the compulsory military service system, so that the heavy artillery that could only be used for siege in the past was divided into lighter field guns and regimental guns, and committed to the standardization of artillery caliber, shell weight and charge, and also used paper medicine kits (only for fortress guns).
King Louis XIV of France founded the world's earliest artillery school in 1690 (the 29th year of Kangxi's reign), and it was also the only artillery school in the world in the next 50 years.
At the end of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century, the French artillery became an integral part of the army, divided into companies and battalions, and the gunners became regular soldiers and had military ranks, thus creating the conditions for the centralized use of artillery and the fixation of personnel, as a result of which the tradition of craft guilds left over from the Middle Ages completely disappeared from the French army.
In 1796, France's new division structure consisted of artillery, infantry and cavalry, with a division of up to 12,000 men and capable of fighting independently. The breech guns and their shells used by the British Navy were no different from those of Nelson's time, but the training of the Navy began to be systematic in the thirties of the 19th century, as a result of which the combat efficiency was greatly improved.
"Firing a projectile that is scheduled to explode on hit the target has given importance to accuracy, and efforts to control the firing distance by adjusting the angle of the gun's fire have become the most frequent job of the gunners. To help with this, the gunners used mathematical instruments such as quadrants and artillery leveling instruments, and the accuracy of the guns was improved accordingly. ”
After the training of Western gunners, a well-qualified artillery crew was able to fire 2-3 shells per minute. Of these, a lot of time was spent on artillery aiming and repeated aiming. In battle, if the enemy is approaching the artillery position, the gun commander will ask for a shotgun, which can be fired without being particularly delicate, without wiping the chamber or aiming, just firing in the direction of the shot.
Maneuvering a gun requires a lot of physical strength and coordination among the gunners. Western army artillery in the era of sail usually has 5 gunners to operate the fire, because the fire door uses flint or lightning mercury striking device, so that its rate of fire is accelerated, and the shooting accuracy and lethality are enhanced. It took three or four consecutive launches before slowing down due to exhaustion.
In 1490~1850, when front-loading smoothbore guns were prevalent, although each naval gun had only a small space to move on the broadside, it had to be turned around and reloaded after each fire.
As a result of these shortcomings, there were some important improvements in the design and mobility of the guns of this period, but these advances were limited by the ammunition and firing methods of the time.
Its rate of fire should be roughly the same as that of Western artillery in the early 19th century, that is, 6~10 rounds per minute, which is 10 times that of the Qing army, so it has repeatedly inflicted heavy losses on the Qing army.
At the most tense moment of the Battle of Bali Bridge on September 21, 1860, the rate of Allied artillery fire was extremely rapid, and "the first platoon of cavalry of the Qing Dynasty stopped at a distance of 50 meters from the Allied troops, and a dense fire of arrows came at the Allied snipers." But the coalition forces were calm and unmoved, accurately returning fire with the carbines in their hands. The Mongol cavalry of the Qing Dynasty drove their horses forward again, and at this moment, the French two No. 4 guns broke through the obstruction and rushed to the battlefield. Due to the critical situation, the gunner quickly set up his gun position and fired 2 shotguns from 30 meters. The Mongol cavalry stopped. Then, two more shells were fired, and the Qing cavalry and horses were blown into the air, and the others immediately retreated. The cannon was fired again with the crackling of sniper gunfire, and the Mongol cavalry began to retreat in large numbers. ”
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