The military system of ancient China is like a splendid and colorful picture, showing the wisdom and strategy of the emperors in governing the country and securing the country. From the Shang and Zhou dynasties, to the conscription system of the Qin and Han dynasties, to the government military system of the Sui and Tang dynasties, to the guard system and the Eight Banners system of the Ming and Qing dynasties, each military system carries the imprint and characteristics of a specific era. The evolution of these systems reflects not only changes in military needs, but also a profound transformation of the socio-economic structure. However, what kind of historical origins are hidden behind these well-known military systems? What are the similarities and differences between them? Why do some military systems last for a long time, while others are short-lived?
At the dawn of ancient Chinese civilization, the rudiments of the military system began to appear. During the Shang Dynasty, military organizations had begun to take shape. According to the oracle bone inscriptions, the Shang King Wuding was known as the "Three Divisions" during the period, which was the earliest prototype of the standing army. However, the truly systematic military system dates back to the Western Zhou Dynasty.
The Western Zhou Dynasty established a military system based on the patriarchal system. The Zhou royal family divided the world into relatives and meritorious heroes, forming vassal states. These vassal states governed separately in peacetime, but in wartime they had to form armies at the behest of Zhou Tianzi. It is recorded in the "Zhou Li": "All residents, four neighbors are neighbors, five neighbors are li, four li are clans, five clans are the party, five parties are states, and five states are townships." "This establishment is not only used for civil administration, but also for the basis of conscription.
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, with the widespread use of iron tools and the improvement of agricultural productivity, great changes took place in society. In order to compete for hegemony, the vassal states have expanded the size of their armies. Wu Qi of Wei was the first to implement the conscription system, requiring civilians to perform military service. The Qin State even established a system in which the whole country was a soldier, and the famous "Military Meritorious" system was formed during this period. After the Shang Dynasty changed the law, the Qin State implemented the system of "Shiwu Liansit", with ten families as one tithe and five families as one army, supervising each other. Such a system not only strengthened social control, but also laid the groundwork for mass conscription.
After Qin Shi Huang unified the six kingdoms, he established a centralized empire. In order to consolidate its rule, the Qin Dynasty implemented a strict household registration system and a conscription system. The Qin Law stipulates: "All men who have reached the age of seventeen are required to serve in the military." This system of national military service greatly enhanced the military strength of the Qin Dynasty and provided a strong guarantee for the unification of the six countries and the northern attack on the Xiongnu.
However, the harsh rule of the Qin Dynasty also buried hidden dangers. During the reign of Qin II, the uprisings of Chen Sheng and Wu Guang broke out, opening the prelude to the peasant uprising. Xiang Yu, Liu Bang and others took the opportunity to rise, which eventually led to the fall of the Qin Dynasty.
At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, the military system of the Qin Dynasty was continued. However, with the stability of society and economic development, important reforms began during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. In response to the threat posed by the Xiongnu, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty conscripted a large number of troops, resulting in a deficit in the treasury. In order to solve this problem, the Han Dynasty began to experiment with conscription. This system allowed local officials to recruit soldiers on their own, especially in the border areas. This has not only eased the financial pressure on the central authorities, but also enhanced the combat effectiveness of the armed forces.
It is worth mentioning that the Han Dynasty also developed a unique military system - the "Tuntian System". At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Wang Mang implemented the policy of "recruiting people to the border", allowing soldiers to cultivate in the border areas, not only to defend the border, but also to be self-sufficient. This system was adopted many times in later history and became an important means of solving border defense and food problems.
From the Shang and Zhou dynasties to the Qin and Han dynasties, the military system in ancient China underwent a transformation from aristocratic monopoly to national participation. This process reflects not only changes in military needs, but also profound changes in the structure of society. With the strengthening of centralized power and the development of society, the military system has been constantly adjusted and improved, laying the foundation for the military system of later generations.
The military system in the Sui and Tang dynasties was an important milestone in the history of the development of the military system in ancient China. The rudiments of this system can be traced back to the late Northern Wei Dynasty, formally established by Yuwentai during the Western Wei Dynasty, and further refined and promoted in the Sui and Tang dynasties.
The background of the formation of the government military system can be traced back to the social changes during the Northern and Southern Dynasties. With the decline of the gate valve system and the introduction of the uniform field system, the social structure has changed dramatically. At the same time, the continuous southward movement of the northern nomads put the Central Plains Dynasty under severe military pressure. In this context, a new military regime emerged.
In the eighth year of the unification of the Western Wei Dynasty (542), Yuwentai imitated the system of the Zhou Dynasty and set up the "Six Armies", a total of 100 prefectures. Each province was led by a Lang general and belonged to the 24th Army. This method of establishment not only retained the independence of the army, but also incorporated it into the administrative system, laying the foundation for the later government military system.
During the reign of Emperor Wen of Sui (581-600), the government military system was implemented throughout the country. Each state has a number of provinces, each of which has hundreds to thousands of soldiers. These soldiers worked as farmers in peacetime and served in the army in wartime. Not only are they exempt from taxes, but they also enjoy a certain social status. Such a system greatly reduced the financial burden of the state, and at the same time ensured the combat effectiveness of the army.
During the reign of Gaozu Wude of the Tang Dynasty (618-626), the military system of the government was further improved. A total of 634 provinces were set up in the country, each with a military capacity ranging from 800 to 1,200 troops. The soldiers took turns to serve in Chang'an, the capital division, and were called "Fanshang". This rotation system not only ensured the defense of the Beijing division, but also strengthened the central government's control over the local governments.
The implementation of the government military system allowed the Tang Dynasty to have a powerful army in a short period of time. In the fourth year of Zhenguan (630), Tang Taizong personally led 100,000 soldiers to expedition against the Turks, defeated Jieli Khan, and established the hegemony of the Tang Dynasty. This battle fully demonstrated the advantages of the government military system and became an important milestone in the military history of the Tang Dynasty.
However, the military system is not without its flaws. Over time, the drawbacks became apparent. First of all, the number of government soldiers is decreasing year by year. According to records, the number of government soldiers during the Tang Gaozong period had dropped from 600,000 at the peak to 350,000. Secondly, the quality of government soldiers is also declining. Due to the long-term non-participation in actual combat, the combat effectiveness of many government soldiers is greatly inferior to before.
More seriously, the government military system contradicted the social and economic development of the middle and late Tang Dynasty. With the development of the commodity economy, more and more people chose to avoid military service and engage in commercial activities instead. At the same time, the secession of feudal towns also made it difficult for the central government to effectively control the local government soldiers.
The Anshi Rebellion (755-763) was a turning point in the decline of the military system. In the face of the rebel attack, the combat effectiveness displayed by the government soldiers was far lower than expected. Tang Xuanzong had to recruit a large number of troops to deal with the crisis. The war exposed the shortcomings of the government military system and accelerated its decline.
In order to cope with the new military needs, the Tang Dynasty began to implement a conscription system. In the first year of the founding of Dezong (780), the "Jiangmen" system was implemented, allowing military generals to inherit their positions. Although this system improved the combat effectiveness of the army in a short period of time, it also buried the hidden danger of separating feudal towns.
Although the government military system eventually declined, its place in China's military history is indelible. It not only provided a military guarantee for the strength of the Tang Dynasty, but also influenced the military system of later generations. For example, the "general system" of the Song Dynasty and the "guard system" of the Ming Dynasty can both see the shadow of the government military system.
The rise and fall of the government military system reflects the changes in ancient Chinese society. Its rise was adapted to the needs of centralization in the early Sui and Tang dynasties, while its decline reflected the profound changes in the social and economic structure of the middle and late Tang dynasties. The evolution of this system provides an important perspective for us to understand the development of the military system in ancient China.
The reform of the military system in the Song and Yuan dynasties was an important turning point in China's military history, which not only reflected the social and economic conditions of the time, but also profoundly influenced the military system of later generations. The reform of the military system during this period was mainly reflected in the Song Dynasty's forbidden army and box army system, the influence of the Mongol military system on the Song Dynasty, and the trend of separating soldiers and peasants.
After Zhao Kuangyin, Taizu of the Song Dynasty, established the Song Dynasty, the primary problem he faced was how to consolidate his power. He learned the lesson of the division of the feudal towns of the five dynasties and ten countries, and decided to implement the policy of "strong cadres and weak branches". At the heart of this policy was the creation of a strong central army, the Forbidden Army. The forbidden army was directly under the control of the emperor and was mainly stationed in Beijing and important strategic points.
In the third year of the Taiping Rejuvenation (978), Taizong of the Song Dynasty ordered the implementation of the Xiang military system throughout the country. The Xiang Army is a local army that is mainly responsible for local security and defense. Unlike the forbidden army, the Xiang army did not detach itself from production in peacetime, and only participated in military operations when necessary. Such a system both ensured military needs and reduced the financial burden on the state.
However, there are also obvious drawbacks to the system of banning the army and the box army. The forbidden army was stationed in the Beijing division for a long time, and gradually became arrogant and lascivious, and its combat effectiveness seriously declined. The famous "Abyss Alliance" is a typical example. In the first year of Jingde (1004), the Liao army marched south, and Song Zhenzong was forced to go out in person. Although the Song army was numerous, its combat effectiveness was inferior to that of the Liao army. Eventually, the Song dynasty had to pay an annual tribute to the Liao in exchange for peace.
At the end of the Northern Song Dynasty, the Jin soldiers invaded the Central Plains, and the Song Dynasty army was defeated and retreated. This incident fully exposed the shortcomings of the military system of the Song Dynasty. After the establishment of the Southern Song Dynasty, in order to deal with the threat of the Jin Dynasty, a large number of volunteers began to be recruited. The most famous of these is the Yue Family Army led by Yue Fei. The Yuejia army was known for its strict military discipline and superb combat effectiveness, and had defeated the Jin army many times. However, due to the suspicion of the imperial court, Yue Fei was eventually unjustly killed, and the Yue family army was disbanded.
After the rise of the Mongols, their great military power had a profound impact on the Song Dynasty. The Mongolian army adopted the "10,000-household system", that is, the army was organized according to units of 1,000, 100, and 10 people. This flexible way of organizing has greatly increased the mobility and combat effectiveness of the army. In the face of the invasion of the Mongol army, the military system of the Song Dynasty appeared to be inadequate.
After the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongol military system continued to be used. However, in order to meet the needs of ruling the Central Plains, some adjustments were also made. For example, the establishment of the "Tanmachi" system, that is, the stationing of small units of troops in various places to be responsible for transmitting military information and maintaining law and order. To a certain extent, this system integrates the characteristics of the traditional military system of the Central Plains and the military system of Mongolia.
Another important trend in the Song and Yuan dynasties was the separation of soldiers and peasants. With the development of the commodity economy and the intensification of land annexation, more and more peasants lost their land and became displaced people. Some of these displaced people chose to make a living in the army, forming a professional army. This trend was especially evident in the Southern Song Dynasty, which laid the foundation for the professionalization of the army in later generations.
The military reform of the Song and Yuan dynasties reflected the transition of Chinese society from an agrarian civilization to a commodity economy. The failure of the forbidden army and the box army system, as well as the emergence of professional soldiers, all show that the traditional system of integrating soldiers and peasants can no longer adapt to the development of society. Although the military reform of this period was not completely successful, it provided valuable experience and lessons for the reform of the military system in the Ming and Qing dynasties.
The military system of the Ming and Qing dynasties underwent major changes, the most representative of which were the Ming Dynasty's guard system and the Qing Dynasty's Eight Banners system. These two systems not only reflected the socio-economic conditions of the time, but also profoundly influenced the military system of later generations in China.
After Ming Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming Dynasty, the primary problem he faced was how to consolidate his power. He learned from the experience of the peasant rebel army at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and combined it with the traditional Chinese military system to create the Wei Sho system. The core of the health system is to combine military units with administrative divisions and set up health and security centers throughout the country. Wei is a larger military unit, usually consisting of 5,600 men; It is a smaller unit, consisting of 1,120 people.
In the early days of the implementation of the health system, remarkable results were achieved. In the fourth year of Hongwu (1371), Zhu Yuanzhang sent Xu Da, Chang Yuchun and other generals to lead the army on a northern expedition, and recovered Shanxi, Hebei and other places in only three months, which fully demonstrated the military advantages of the Wei system. In the twenty-sixth year of Hongwu (1393), the Ming Dynasty set up 329 guards and 65 independent thousand households across the country, with a total military strength of more than 3 million people. This huge army became an important force for the Ming Dynasty to defend against foreign enemies and suppress civil strife.
However, there are also obvious drawbacks to the health system. First of all, the hereditary system of military households in the guard has led to an increase in the number of military households, while the actual number of people serving in the military has decreased. Secondly, the sergeants of the guard station worked in agriculture in peacetime and served in the army in wartime, and did not participate in actual combat training for a long time, resulting in a decline in combat effectiveness. Finally, there was serious corruption among the officials of the health center, and military salaries were often filled with their own pockets.
These problems became more and more serious in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty. During the Zhengde period (1506-1521), when Zhu Chenhao, the king of Ning, rebelled, the Weisuo army in Jiangxi, Huguang and other places was almost unable to resist. In order to cope with this situation, the Ming Dynasty began to implement the conscription system, which gradually replaced the guard system. However, instead of solving the root causes, such reforms have increased the fiscal burden.
After the establishment of the Qing Dynasty, the traditional military system of the Manchurians - the Eight Banners System was continued. The Eight Banners system originated from the "cattle recording" of the Nurhachi period. In the eleventh year of the Mandate of Heaven (1616), Nurhachi organized his troops into eight flags, namely the yellow flag, the white flag, the red flag, the blue flag, the yellow flag, the white flag, the red flag and the blue flag. Each has five cattle records, and each cattle record has five A.
The Eight Banners System is not only a military system, but also a form of social organization. Banner bearers not only bear military obligations, but also enjoy special political and economic treatment. This system allowed the Manchurian aristocracy to maintain a firm grip on the army and thus maintain its dominance.
The Eight Banners system played an important role in the early Qing Dynasty. During the Kangxi reign (1662-1722), the Qing Dynasty relied on the strong combat effectiveness of the Eight Banners Army to quell the rebellion of the three feudatories, recover Taiwan, and successfully resist the invasion of Tsarist Russia. However, as time passed, the drawbacks of the Eight Flags system gradually became apparent.
First of all, the soldiers of the Eight Banners were stationed in the Beijing Division for a long time, and gradually became arrogant and lascivious, and their combat effectiveness decreased significantly. Secondly, the population of the Eight Banners grew rapidly, but the number of soldiers did not increase accordingly, resulting in a large number of banner people losing their jobs. Finally, the privileged nature of the Eight Banners system contradicted the interests of the Han scholar class, which exacerbated the contradictions between the Manchus and the Hans.
In order to make up for the shortcomings of the Eight Banners system, the Qing Dynasty began to implement the green camp system. The Green Battalion was mainly composed of Han soldiers and was responsible for local security and border defense. However, the combat effectiveness of the Green Battalion was also not satisfactory. The Taiping Rebellion during the Xianfeng period (1851-1861) fully exposed the shortcomings of the Qing Dynasty's military system.
Faced with this situation, the Qing Dynasty began to carry out military reforms. During the Tongzhi period (1862-1874), Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, Li Hongzhang and others successively created local armies such as the Hunan Army and the Huai Army. These new types of armies were well-equipped and well-trained, and played an important role in quelling the Taiping Rebellion and suppressing the Twist Army Uprising.
However, this reform did not fundamentally solve the problems of the Qing military system. In the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), the Qing army was far inferior to the Japanese army in terms of equipment and training, and finally suffered a crushing defeat. The war became a turning point in the Qing Dynasty's military reform, prompting the Qing government to begin to comprehensively study the Western military system.
During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the system of guards and the system of eight banners reflected the evolution of China's traditional military system. The rise and fall of these two systems reflects the difficult process of China's transformation from an agrarian civilization to a modern society. Although these systems eventually declined, they provided valuable experience and lessons for the reform of China's modern military system.
China's military reform in modern times is a long and arduous process, from the period of the foreign affairs movement to the establishment of the new army, and then to the rise of the Beiyang New Army, every step embodies the Chinese's dream of pursuing a rich country and a strong army. The military reforms of this period not only changed China's military outlook, but also profoundly affected China's political and social structure.
The Westernization Movement opened the prelude to China's military modernization. In 1861, the establishment of the Prime Minister's National Affairs Yamen marked the official beginning of the Westernization Movement. Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, Zuo Zongtang, and other Western-style officials realized that in order to resist the aggression of Western powers, it was necessary to learn the advanced military technology of the West. They first set about establishing new-type military industrial enterprises, such as the Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau and the Fuzhou Shipbuilding Bureau, to provide modern weapons and equipment for the Chinese army.
In the first year of Tongzhi (1862), Zeng Guofan founded the Hunan Army, which was equipped with Western-style firearms and far surpassed the main force of the Qing army. The Hunan army played a key role in quelling the Taiping Rebellion. In the same year, Zuo Zongtang also formed the Chu Army in Shaanxi, and made great contributions in suppressing the Twist Army Uprising. The success of these local armies provided valuable experience for the later building of the new army.
However, this military reform still has obvious shortcomings. First of all, the lack of unified command among the various local armies is prone to a situation of separation. Second, although these armies are equipped with Western-style weapons, they still follow the traditional model in terms of organizational structure and training methods, and it is difficult to bring into full play the power of modern weapons.
The fiasco of the First Sino-Japanese War became a turning point in China's military reform. In 1895, the Qing government was forced to sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki with Japan, ceding Taiwan and the Penghu Islands, and paying 200 million taels of silver. The war exposed the nature of China's military backwardness and prompted the Qing government to resolve to learn from the Western military system in an all-round way.
In 1895, Yuan Shikai was ordered to form a new army. He founded a military academy at a small station and hired German instructors to train soldiers. This new army is not only well-equipped, but also uses Western training methods and organizational structures. When the Eight-Nation Coalition invaded Beijing in 1900, Yuan Shikai's new army became the only military force that the Qing court could rely on.
Inspired by the New Army of Xiaozhan Station, the Qing government began to implement the New Army system throughout the country. In 1901, the Qing court promulgated the "Regulations for the New Army" and decided to form a new army in 36 towns across the country. These new armies have not only upgraded their equipment, but have also comprehensively improved their organizational structure, training methods, and command system.
In 1906, the Qing government established the Ministry of War to manage the affairs of the army throughout the country. In the same year, the Beiyang New Army was reorganized into 6 towns and became the main force of the Qing army. This army reached a fairly high level in terms of equipment, training, and organization, and was considered one of the most powerful land forces in Asia at that time.
However, the creation of the new army also brought with it a series of problems. First, the high cost of the new army put enormous financial pressure on the Qing government. Second, the establishment of the new army broke the Manchu-Han equilibrium and exacerbated the Manchu-Han contradictions. In the end, the new army became the object of contention among various local forces, laying a hidden danger for the later warlords.
The Wuchang Uprising, which broke out in 1911, was launched by the New Army. After the uprising began, new armies everywhere responded, leading to the rapid collapse of the Qing Dynasty. This incident fully shows that the modernization of the armed forces is not only a technical issue, but also a political issue.
After the Xinhai Revolution, the situation of warlord secession was formed. Although the warlords everywhere claim to have inherited the traditions of the new army, in fact the quality of most of the army is far from what it used to be. The warlord scuffle has not only hindered China's reunification, but also seriously affected the process of modernizing the armed forces.
In 1924, Sun Yat-sen founded the Whampoa Military Academy in Guangzhou, starting a new attempt at military reform. The Whampoa Military Academy not only paid attention to military skills training, but also attached importance to political and ideological education, and trained a large number of backbone cadres for the later National Revolutionary Army and the Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army.
In 1927, Chiang Kai-shek's Northern Expedition unified much of China. Subsequently, the Nationalist Government began to implement the system of separating military administration from military orders in an attempt to establish a nationalized and modern army. However, due to the obstruction of warlord forces and Japanese aggression, this reform did not achieve the desired effect.
At the same time, the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, led by the Chinese Communist Party, began its own attempts at military reform in the Jiangxi Soviet District. The Red Army made a series of innovations in organizational structure, strategy and tactics, which laid the foundation for the later People's Liberation Army.
China's military reform in modern times is a process full of twists and turns. From the foreign affairs movement to the construction of the new army, to the rise of the National Revolutionary Army and the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, the Chinese are constantly exploring the path of military modernization suited to their national conditions. This process not only changed China's military landscape, but also profoundly affected China's political and social structure.