In the autumn of the third year of Xuantong, under the sky of the Qing Empire, a grand military exercise was brewing. This is not just an ordinary military parade, but a "show of muscles" with deep political intentions. The Qing court, once a glorious dynasty, faced with internal and external troubles, financial crises, and a rising wave of nationalism, tried to regain its prestige and stabilize its crumbling rule through this Yongping Autumn Campaign. However, the wheels of history roll forward, and everything does not seem to be satisfactory. When the state-owned railway policy provoked a nationwide backlash and the road protection movement was in full swing, could this military exercise really become a lifesaver for the Qing court? Or would it become a catalyst for hastening the demise of the empire? What kind of stories and conspiracies were hidden behind this military exercise? With the assembly of troops and the preparation of artillery fire, an autumn exercise concerning the fate of the Qing Empire was about to begin, but what would be the result?
Prelude to the Yongping Autumn Exercise: Railway State-Owned Policy and the Road Protection Movement
In China at the beginning of the 20th century, railways became a symbol of imperial modernization and the pride of national enterprises. However, in 1911 all this was challenged like never before. The Qing Empire, once a glorious East Asian giant, faced serious financial difficulties. In order to solve this crisis, the Qing court decided to set its sights on the construction of railways by private capital, which was regarded as a "fat" asset.
In May 1911, the Qing court promulgated the policy of "state-owned railway trunk lines", announcing that two important private railways, the Guangdong-Hanzhou Railway (Wuhan-Guangzhou) and the Sichuan-Hankou Railway (Wuhan-Chengdu), would be nationalized. This decision was not based on outright economic considerations, but rather as a stopgap measure. The Qing court used these two railways as collateral and signed the Huguang Railway Loan Contract with Britain, France, Germany, and the United States, and obtained much-needed loans from the foreign powers.
However, the introduction of this policy quickly caused an uproar across the country. Sichuan, as an important end of the Sichuan-Hankou Railway, has reacted particularly fiercely. Local elites and businessmen, who had invested heavily in the construction of railways in the hope of improving local economies and societies, now saw their interests ruthlessly deprived. This intense dissatisfaction quickly translated into action. The Sichuan people set up the "Baolu Comrades Association" and quickly organized the "Baolu Comrades Army", and the number of people quickly swelled to hundreds of thousands.
More than just a rebellion against the state-owned railroads, it soon evolved into a full-blown anti-Qing movement. The movement, which spread from Sichuan to the whole country, marked a general dissatisfaction and protest against Qing rule. Under these circumstances, the Qing court felt unprecedented pressure and threat.
In response to the increasingly dire situation, the Qing government decided to adopt a traditional and highly symbolic method, military exercises, as a way to demonstrate its military might, restore popular confidence in the central government, and deter anti-Qing forces everywhere. This is the later "Yongping Autumn Exercise". The Qing court chose to carry out this large-scale military exercise in the area from Baishuzhuang to the north of Guizi Mountain west of Luanzhou, and it was named Yongping Qiucao because the area belonged to the boundary of Yongping.
The Qing court had high hopes for this military exercise, hoping to restore imperial power and stabilize the situation through a spectacular military display. However, the course of history is often full of variables and ironies, and the holding of the Yongping Autumn Drill did not ultimately go as the Qing court wished, but became the fuse of a series of historical changes, and every cannon sound of this military exercise sounded the death knell for the end of the Qing Empire.
Preparations for the military exercise: the plans of the Qing court and the expectations of the people
In China in 1911, the Qing court faced an unprecedented crisis. Across the country, the pro-road movement has evolved into a widespread anti-Qing wave. In response to this situation, the Qing court decided to hold a large-scale military exercise, the Yongping Autumn Exercise, in the hope of restoring its authority and stabilizing the situation in the country through this operation. The preparations for the exercise were a vast and complex task that involved countless details and arrangements, from site selection to the selection of participating troops, each step of which reflected the Qing court's good intentions.
First of all, the Qing court was extremely cautious about the location of the exercise. The final site was located in the area from Baishuzhuang to the north of Guizi Mountain, west of Luanzhou, which is not only open and suitable for large-scale military exercises, but also has a relatively remote geographical location, which can effectively avoid external interference in the exercise. In addition, the area belongs to the Yongping Territory and has a rich historical and cultural heritage, which also makes the exercise have a certain symbolic significance.
In the selection of troops, the Qing court also showed great prudence. The troops participating in the Yongping Autumn Exercise were mainly composed of the newly built army, which was the most trusted military force of the Qing court at that time, with the six towns of Beiyang as the main force. In addition, there was the participation of the Imperial Janissary Guard, which was mainly composed of the Eight Banners Janissaries and represented the traditional military force of the Qing Dynasty. The commander-in-chief was Feng Guozhang, a military adviser who was an important military minister at the time and had rich military experience and command ability.
In order to ensure the smooth conduct of the exercises, the Qing court also formulated a series of strict rules and regulations. These include the Rules for Officers to Watch the Autumn Exercise, the Rules for the Students and the People to Watch the Autumn Exercise, the Rules for the Service of the Superintendent of the Autumn Exercise, and the Rules for the Service of the Army Police during the Autumn Exercise, which set out in detail the various codes of conduct and discipline requirements during the exercise, showing the importance that the Qing court attached to the exercise.
In the preparation stage of the exercise, the Qing court also emphasized the importance of external propaganda. In order to demonstrate the Qing court's open-mindedness and strong military strength, the Qing court invited foreign ministers and military attaches to China to observe the scene. This was not only an opportunity to demonstrate the Qing Dynasty's military power to the outside world, but also an attempt to strengthen the legitimacy of domestic rule through international recognition.
At the same time, public expectations for the exercise are mixed. On the one hand, many people hoped to regain confidence in the Qing court by seeing the military strength of the Qing court through this exercise, and on the other hand, the pro-road movement and the rise of anti-Qing sentiment also made some people suspicious and dissatisfied with the exercise. They feared that the exercise could be a prelude to the Qing government's crackdown on internal dissent.
Against this complex background, the preparations for the Yongping Autumn Exercise were carried out in a tense and orderly atmosphere. Each of these preparations was given far-reaching political significance, and the final effect of the exercise would have a direct impact on the fate of the Qing court and the course of Chinese history.
Autumn Exercises: Spectacle and Potential Rift
In the autumn of 1911, the Yongping Territory of the Qing Empire became the focus of the whole country. In this ancient land, the Yongping Autumn Exercise organized by the Qing court officially kicked off. The military exercise was not only a stage for the Qing court to demonstrate its military might, but also an important measure to try to stabilize the domestic situation and restore public confidence. However, the cracks and problems hidden behind this exercise have gradually been revealed, laying the groundwork for subsequent historical changes.
On the day of the exercise, the sky was cloudless, and the sun shone on the uniformly aligned army and shining weapons. The Yongping Autumn Parade, carefully prepared by the Qing court, culminated in a spectacular military parade. Tens of thousands of soldiers passed in front of the rostrum in accordance with the predetermined phalanx, accompanied by sonorous and powerful military music. Their steps were firm and their expressions were serious, demonstrating the discipline and strength of the Qing army. In addition, a variety of arms, including cavalry, artillery, and engineering troops, as well as modern military equipment such as the newly introduced Kluber machine gun and military marching telephone, were also displayed during the exercise.
Foreign envoys and military attaches were invited to the scene, and their presence was not only an international recognition of the Qing court's military power, but also part of the Qing court's attempt to stabilize the domestic situation through diplomatic means. These foreign observers gave a certain positive evaluation of the performance of the Qing army, and they expressed their approval of the modern equipment and training level of the Qing army, which satisfied the original intention of the Qing court to a certain extent.
However, despite the spectacle and orderliness of the Yongping Autumn Drill on the surface, a series of problems were exposed during the exercise. First of all, despite the modern equipment of the army, some soldiers are not skilled enough to operate new weapons, which caused some minor confusion and accidents during the exercise. In addition, fatigue and morale problems began to manifest in some soldiers due to long periods of high-intensity training and preparation for exercises. These problems, although covered up as much as possible during the parade, are still perceived by some attentive observers.
To make matters worse, during the exercise, there were disagreements within the Qing court over how to deal with the political crisis at home. Some military officers and officials had reservations about whether they should continue to use hard means to suppress the anti-Qing movement within themselves. Such differences have caused a certain amount of friction and unrest within the armed forces, affecting the overall effectiveness of the exercise.
Despite these problems and rifts, Yongping Autumn Exercise went ahead as planned. The Qing court tried to send a powerful and unified message through this exercise, but in reality, it reflected the complexity and fragility of an empire on the eve of change. This seemingly spectacular military display not only failed to fully achieve its expected political and military effects, but on the contrary, deepened the instability and uncertainty in the country to a certain extent.
The aftermath of the Autumn Exercise: The Wuchang Uprising and the collapse of the Qing court
The Yongping Autumn Exercise of 1911, although it superficially demonstrated the military power of the Qing Empire, in reality failed to achieve its intended stabilizing effect. On the contrary, the exercise became a microcosm of the turmoil of the last years of the Qing Dynasty, heralding the great changes that were coming to the empire. In the aftermath of the Autumn Exercise, a series of major events continued one after another, which eventually led to the collapse of the Qing court.
Shortly after the exercise, on October 10, 1911, an armed uprising by the New Army broke out in Wuchang. The uprising, later known as the Wuchang Uprising, marked the beginning of the Xinhai Revolution and was a turning point in modern Chinese history. The immediate cause of the uprising was the Qing court's state-owned railway policy and the oppression of national capital, but its deep-seated roots lay in the Qing court's long-term corruption and incompetence, as well as the superposition of domestic and foreign pressures.
News of the outbreak of the Wuchang uprising quickly spread across the country, sparking a response from more provinces. Independence was declared in various places, and the foundation of the Qing court's rule quickly collapsed. In this case, the Qing court was forced to react. Zaitao, as the minister of parade and exercise, received an urgent telegram ordering him to immediately end the autumn exercise and lead the troops south to support Wuchang. However, the implementation of this order did not go well. Part of the New Army led by Feng Guozhang moved south to fight the revolutionaries, while other units were slow to move due to lack of unity of command and unclear objectives.
At the same time, the Imperial Guards were also forced to return to the capital to strengthen the defense of the capital. However, these measures have failed to reverse the situation. Shortly after the Wuchang Uprising, the New Army led by Wu Luzhen and Zhang Shaozeng launched a military campaign in Luanzhou, an action also known as the Luanzhou Uprising. This uprising further weakened the military power of the Qing court and hastened the fall of the Qing Empire.
Yongping Qiucao and the series of events that followed showed the struggle and powerlessness of an empire in the midst of internal and external troubles. The Qing court tried to demonstrate its power through military exercises, but in fact exposed its internal corruption and contradictions. When the situation spiraled out of control, the Qing court's response was slow and ineffective, unable to adapt to the rapidly changing political environment.
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In the end, the collapse of the Qing court was not only the result of military defeat, but also the result of the accumulation of long-term political, economic, and social problems. Although the Yongping Autumn Exercise was only a brief event in history, it was an important symbol of historical change in the last years of the Qing Dynasty, heralding the end of an era and the beginning of a new era.