With the great changes in the social structure and social thinking during the Warring States period, the concept of ghosts and gods in society also appeared in an unprecedented situation. If the Spring and Autumn period reflected more of the religious beliefs of the Zhou Dynasty, then the worship of gods and spirits in the Warring States period can be said to be the coming of a new era from the kingdom of heaven. This paper attempts to discuss some important issues of the concept of ghosts and gods in the Warring States period on the basis of the research of senior experts, hoping to provide some help for the study of social ideology in the Warring States period.
One
Like the Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods, God is still the object of reverence and prayer of people of all walks of life in the Warring States society, but it already has more characteristics of the times. The types of gods were very complex during the Warring States period, and there were roughly several categories such as heavenly gods, natural gods, and ancestor gods. Among them, the gods are the most distinctive.
"Tian" still had a high status in the minds of people during the Warring States period, so there was "Mo Shen in Heaven" (Note: "Zhuangzi Tiandao"). statement. However, during the Warring States period, people paid more attention to the "emperor". The gods of heaven had a tendency to be systematized during the Warring States period. In the past, if the "emperor" was "God", there were not many followers and assistants, but during the Warring States period, the "emperor" occupied the core and leadership position of the kingdom of heaven, and a huge group of gods and spirits was formed, and many famous figures also rose from the earth to the kingdom of heaven and became "emperors". During the Spring and Autumn Warring States period, God was only an important member of the Heavenly Court, not enough to become the representative of the Heavenly Court, so Mozi said that "Jie is a gluten filled with wine, and prays to the heavens by sacrificing to God, ghosts and gods" (Note: Mozi Tianzhi). ）。
However, in the Warring States period, people often emphasized the divine power of God or the Yellow Emperor, and no longer put the sky in an overwhelming position (Note: Since the end of spring and autumn, the "heaven" in people's thinking has increasingly acquired natural character. Confucius said, "What is God? Four o'clock to go, a hundred things to live, what is the word? (Analects of Yang Goods) takes the change of the four times and the growth of a hundred things as the connotation of heaven. Mencius said: "He who does what he does, Heaven also; Heaven is also the one who does not lead to it" (Mencius Wanzhang), which shows that there are some ideological elements that heaven does not depend on human will. Xunzi in the late Warring States period even developed this idea to the extreme, pointing out that "the team of fuxing (falling), the sound of wood, is the change of heaven and earth, the transformation of yin and yang, and the rare of things", "the sky is not for the evil cold of people, quit winter; The evil of the earth is not far away, and it is wide", "the heavens have a constant way, and the earth has a constant" ("Xunzi Tianzhi").
In the concept of people during the Warring States period, "heaven" has the meaning of the sky, such as Mencius's saying that "the sky is full of clouds and rain" (Mencius Liang Hui Wang), "Li Ji Confucius Idle Residence" said that "the sky has four hours, spring, autumn, winter and summer, wind, rain and frost", and "Lü's Spring and Autumn and Mid-Autumn Period" said that "everything is done, and the number of days without reversal must follow the time", which is an example. ） 。 "Lü's Spring and Autumn and Mid-Autumn Period" talks about the situation of the moon sacrifice in mid-autumn, saying that "it is the moon, it is the order to slaughter the blessing, and the parade sacrifices: see the whole thing; Case; Seeing the fertile and barren, looking for it, it must be compared to the class; The amount is small and large, depending on the length and shortness, all are moderate. The five are prepared for God's enjoyment", which shows that great importance is attached to God's sacrifice.
The emperor, also known as the "Emperor God of Heaven" during the Warring States period, was subjected to the most solemn sacrifice, and the "Lü Clan Spring and Autumn Ji Xia Ji" contains the month of Ji Xia, "It is the moon, so that the four supervisors and doctors are united in the rank of the hundred counties, in order to raise and sacrifice, so that the people can all contribute their strength, for the emperor of heaven, famous mountains and rivers, and the gods of the four directions." "Lü's Spring and Autumn and Ji Dong Ji" states that the moon of Ji Dong "is the history of the Tai Shi, the second prince, and the sacrifice of the Kai for the enjoyment of the emperor and the gods and the society,...... All the people of Kyushu under the world will give their strength to the worship of the emperor and god, the temple, the mountain, the forest, and the river." The so-called "Emperor God" refers to the God of the Heavenly Court, and its title emphasizes "God" rather than "Heaven". In the early Warring States period, "Qin Linggong made Wuyang sacrifice to the Yellow Emperor, and as the lower Bi sacrifice to the Yan Emperor" (Note: "Shiji Feng Zen Book"). ）。
Later, when Qin Xiangong was committed, he "thought that he had obtained Jinrui, so he worshipped the White Emperor" (Note: "Shiji Feng Zen Shu"). ） 。 It is said that the so-called "bi" was originally a righteous righteousness, and the people used the stone in the field to sacrifice the gods, and later the rulers also called the place of sacrifice they set up "畤". There were six Qin people, three of which sacrificed to the White Emperor, which was the emperor that the Qin people valued the most, and the remaining three were sacrificed to the Qing Emperor, the Yellow Emperor and the Yan Emperor respectively. Although the objects sacrificed are not consistent, they are all sacrifices to the "emperors" in the kingdom of heaven. In the middle of the Warring States period, Qin's "Curse Chuwen" accused the king of Chu of "not fearing the Emperor Heavenly God and the Great Shen Jiuhuang Light and Mighty God", and said that the Qin state itself "should be blessed by the Emperor Heavenly God and the Great Shen Jiuhuang Zhi Spiritual Virtue". It can be seen that the "Emperor God" is the highest status deity in the minds of the Qin people.
During the Warring States period, although the monarchs of various princely states had the practice of arrogance and suburban sacrifice to "heaven", they were occasionally seen and were not common practice (Note: In the early Warring States period, the Yan ware inscription has the words "Respecting the suburbs ("suburbs" is a borrowed word, and the original characters are worshiped from Shi and Qiao" (the inscription "Hou Kuyi"), which is an example of worshiping suburban sacrifices). ）。 The relationship between the emperor and the heavens already had a relatively clear concept during the Warring States period, that is, the emperor was the master of the heavenly court. The Changsha Bullet Depot Warring States Chu Tomb Book says:
Di Yu: "Qiu! Respectfully! No respect or respect. But heaven is blessed, and God is each (qualified); But if the heavens are demons, God will benefit them. Respect is prepared, the sky is like a rule, the salt is only the sky.... The ring of the people, respect it! "These are the words of the emperor admonishing the people, let the people worship the gods, and there should be no disrespect. For if heaven is blessed, the gods will come and help the people; If heaven punishes the people and inflicts demons, God will also exert favors to alleviate calamity. The people below should worship the gods and obey the heavens, and only the will of heaven should obey. The people must be cautious and fearful, and do not make mistakes! This rhetoric of the "emperor" is condescending, above "heaven" and "god", so he admonishes the people to worship God in accordance with heaven.
During the Warring States period, the gods had formed a system, in which there were many gods with various functions. There are records of this in the bamboo simplified text of the Warring States period. Hubei Tianxingguan No. 1 Chu Tomb discovered in the late 70s (Note: Hubei Province Jingzhou Regional Museum: "Jiangling Tianxingguan No. 1 Chu Tomb", Journal of Archaeology, No. 1, 1982. ), the era belongs to the middle of the Warring States period, and the tomb owner is Shangqing of the State of Chu. Many bamboo tablets were unearthed in the tomb to record the situation of Zhanxi, among which the gods prayed for include "Si Ming", "Si Woe", "Diyu", "Yunjun", "Dashui", "Lady Dongcheng", etc., and the ancestor deities prayed for include "Zhuo Gong" and "Hui Gong".
In the Qin tomb excavated in the mid-80s, the Qin tomb of Fangmatan No. 1 in Tianshui, Gansu Province, excavated in the mid-80s, is among the strange stories recorded in the bamboo Jian (Note: for the interpretation of the strange stories in Jianzhong in Jian, see Mr. Li Xueqin's article "Chi Wei Stories in Fangmatan Jane" (Cultural Relics, No. 4, 1990). ), the god who can bring death to death and resurrection is the "priest". There are many subordinate officials under the god of "Si Ming", and the famous Gongsun Qiang of the "History of Si Ming" contained in the brief text is one of them. Gongsun Qiang could ask the dog to dig up the dead Famous Dan from the ground and place it on the tomb for three days to revive. The seven worships of the king and the five worships established by the princes contained in the Book of Rites and Sacrifices are all ordained by the priests. Among the gods of worship contained in the "Zhou Li Da Zongbo", there is also "Si Ming". The gods of Si Ming contained in "Chu Ci Nine Songs" are divided into two types: "big Si Mei" and "Small Si Mei". The inscription of the Qi instrument "Huanzi Mengjiang Pot" in the Warring States period contains the sacrifice, and there are words "Yu Dasi ordered to use bi". These can be confirmed by the god of "command" contained in the simple text. There is a subtle connection between the emergence of gods with various functions among the Tenjin and the perfection of the bureaucratic system during the Sengoku period.
Two
On the basis of the contention of hundreds of schools of thought during the Warring States period, there is often a big gap in people's understanding of ghosts and gods in society. Different from the tendency of the sons to deny ghosts and gods, Mozi during the Spring and Autumn Warring States period tried to identify the existence of ghosts and gods, and his "Ming Ghosts" chapter he wrote explained the careful and powerful detection of ghosts and gods from two aspects: documentary records and his own exposition, believing that "the wisdom of ghosts and gods cannot be known for the vast world of the world, the deep valleys of mountains and forests, and the wisdom of ghosts and gods." The punishment of ghosts and gods shall not be for the rich and powerful, brave and strong, strong armor, and the punishment of ghosts and gods will be victorious." Mozi actually regarded ghosts and gods as the reliance and embodiment of justice for the lower classes and the weak and helpless, and used ghosts and gods as powerful weapons to realize their ideal realm.
The people are adulterous and promiscuous thieves, and they use the blade of poison and fire to retreat the innocent to the road, and those who seize the carts and horses for self-interest, and thus stop" (Note: "Mozi Ming Ghost"). ） 。 The Zhuangzi Gengsangchu says, "For those who are not good at revealing, people are punished; For those who are not good in the shadows, the ghosts are cursed; Knowing people, knowing ghosts, and then being able to walk alone." This doctrine advocates self-discipline, and if something bad is done in the place of manifestation, then man can punish him; If it is ungood in a dark place, then the devil can also punish him; Therefore, people should be honest not only with people, but also with ghosts. This idea is completely consistent with Mojia's saying that "mountains and forests are deep in valleys, and the knowledge of ghosts and gods must be known".
In the eyes of ordinary people during the Warring States period, ghosts had many needs like people. Sleeping Tiger Di Qin Jian's "Book of the Day" says that "ghost Hengxian (naked) into the human palace, is a child who dies and is not buried", this kind of ghost enters people's living rooms naked, when they want clothes to wear. Some ghosts came to the room and shouted "Qi (gluttony) I eat", which is what the "hungry ghosts" are asking for to eat. Ghosts will also "go through their palaces" and go to people's dwellings, which are the dwellings of ghosts. The ghost "always summons people out of the palace, it is a ghost who does not (none) dwell", which is also the ghost looking for a place to live. Ghosts also often "travel from people" and "from men and women", which is where ghosts want to make friends with people. "If a wife and concubine die, the ghost returns", which shows that the ghost does not forget the old love.
Ghost night into the room, "holding the husband, playing the woman", may be the ghost's need for sex life. The ghost knocks on the door at night, "crying in song", this kind of ghost has a desire to perform, but it does not sing well. The ghost "Hengxiang (Holding) Human Animals", this is the livestock of the ghost robbing people, which shows that he has robbery behavior. "People walk and ghosts stand in the way", this kind of ghost is not much different from the robbers of the jade path. In short, in the eyes of people during the Warring States period, ghosts also had food, clothing, shelter and travel, as well as seven emotions and six desires. During the Warring States period, people used their understanding of real life to shape the world of ghosts and the image of ghosts.
In the world of ghosts and gods during the Warring States period, the gods were high and glorious, and there were very few evil people. Ghosts, on the other hand, become monsters and other things, which can cause plagues and diseases, and cause all kinds of harm to people and property. Compared with ghosts, although the power of fairies is less, it is still valued by people. "Zhuangzi Dasheng" once discussed the matter of "having ghosts", and people in the Warring States period believed: "Shen has a track, and the stove has a bun." The trouble of the interior, the thunder of the place; Under the northeast, Bea, salmon leaps; Those below the northwest are in the yang. Water has elephants, hills have weeps, mountains have hesitations, wild ones have hesitations, and Ze has snakes." The "track" mentioned here is a ghost name, which means that there will be a ghost such as "track" in places where sewage accumulates. Every stove has a god of Vesta, and according to legend, the god of Vesta, known as "bun", is a god dressed in red and shaped like a beautiful woman.
Where the dust accumulates in the home, there will be ghosts called "thunder" there. Underneath the northeast of the "bea" (i.e. mound), there will be gods called "salmon" jumping there. According to legend, the salmon resembles a child, one foot four inches long, dressed in black, wearing a red turban, a large hat, and a sword and halberd. Below the northwest of "Bea", there is a deity called "Luyang" there. According to legend, the head is like a leopard and the tail is like a horse. In the water there is a god called "Elephant", which is said to resemble a child, crimson-black, with large ears and long arms. There are monsters called "沍" on the hills. This monster is shaped like a dog, has horns, and has multicolored patterns on its body. There is a one-legged monster called "Kui" on the mountain. In the wilderness there are two-headed snakes called "hesitation". In Osawa there are monsters called "snakes".
In addition to the ghosts and gods listed above, there are also some monsters, which are similar in nature to ghosts. For example, the "snake" was originally a long snake, but during the Warring States period, people thought that it was "as big as a hub, as long as a dragon, purple and crowned." It is also evil for things, and when it hears the sound of thunder carts, it stands at its head." Such a fairy is not much different from a "ghost". In the impression of people during the Warring States period, ghosts were flexible and powerful. During the Warring States period, people believed that elves also had great power and influence. For example, the Changsha Bullet Depot Warring States Chu Tomb Book says: "Only contrary to virtue, from the Yellow Spring, the soil and sui died..., out of the inside (in) [empty] is the same, and at first (as) the murder of its subordinates." The sun and the moon are chaotic, and the stars are not shining. The sun and the moon are chaotic, and the years and seasons are.... The temple (time) rain advances and retreats, and death (there is) still (constant) Heng", which means that if the people violate the heavenly rewards and punishments, then the evil spirits will emerge from the yellow spring to the mountain of the Song Valley, which is extremely high on the earth, and then come to the world from high and cause calamity.
The sun and moon are chaotic, the stars are no longer bright, and with it comes the confusion of years and seasons, and the abnormality of wind and rain. The elves contained in the Sleeping Tiger Di Qin Jian's "Book of the Day and Blame" are more closely related to people, such as "people are killed by water", and the death of babies is the result of "water death" and the death of babies is the result of being taken away by the monsters of "water death". "Wolf Heng calls people to the door: 'Qiwu'", this kind of wolf who wants to enter the door is obviously also a monster. In addition, such as "big ticket (floating) wind", "big charm", "female mouse hugging", etc., are all monsters. This kind of monster, the "Nishu Ji Gui" chapter may be called "夭 (妖)". It is said that "birds and beasts can speak, and it is also a demon (demon)". The monsters in the chapter are similar to the monsters of later generations.
Three
In the hundreds of families, some schools do not believe much in the existence of ghosts and gods, and Xunzi's understanding of monsters is a typical example. If compared with ghosts, the character of natural objects of monsters is more prominent. In Xunzi's opinion, the elves are no longer surprising. He said:
Star team (falling), wood song, the countrymen are afraid. Q: What is it? It is the change of heaven and earth, the transformation of yin and yang, and the inaccessibility of things. Strange, but also, and fearful, non-also. The eclipse of the sun and the moon, the wind and rain from time to time, the party of strange stars sees, it is worldless and not common. Shangming and political peace, although the world rises, there is no harm; Dark and political risk, although there is no one, there is no benefit. The team of Fuxing (falling), the song of wood, is the change of heaven and earth, the transformation of yin and yang, and the rarity of things. Strange, but also; And fear, none. (Note: "Xunzi Tianzhi". The fall of meteors and the sound of trees in the wind are all phenomena of panic among people. Xunzi believed that these were the results of changes in heaven and earth, yin and yang. It's understandable to feel strange because it's rare, but it's not necessary to be afraid. There are many monsters in society, such as "star falls, wood songs", etc., from the perspective of Xunzi's theory, they should not be feared.
The Yin-Yang family in the Warring States period seems to have deified both yin and yang and expounded their theories, but their so-called "yin" and "yang" are far from the concept of ghosts and gods, and their theories also include many views that deny the existence of ghosts and gods. The Book of Han and Art and Literature Records says that "the flow of the yin and yang family is covered by the officials of Xihe, honoring the Hao Tian, the calendar, the sun, the moon and the stars, and honoring the people. and those who are detained are involved in taboos, mud in decimals, and sacrifice people to ghosts and gods." This shows that the Yin-Yang family does not believe in ghosts and gods, but attaches importance to personnel, and the Yin-Yang family at the end of the later generations is bound to taboo things, so that they "sacrifice personnel and let ghosts and gods".
The "Lü Clan Spring and Autumn Bozhi" says that "Gai Wen Kong Qiu and Mo Zhai recited Xi Ye in irony, and saw King Wen and Zhou Gongdan at night and asked questions." With such a good will, why not achieve it? What doesn't work? Therefore, if you are familiar with it, the ghost will tell it. If you don't tell the ghost, you will be proficient." It is believed that on the surface, it seems that the ghosts and gods are helping Kong Qiu and Mo Zhai, but in fact they are the result of their proficiency and mastery, not that the ghosts and gods have helped them in any way. During the Warring States period, as a branch of the Yin-Yang family, there were "shape-law scholars", and the "Hanshu Art Wenzhi" listed "one hundred and twenty-two volumes of the six schools of shapes", many of which included the writings of people in the Warring States period, Ban Gu believed, "The shape-law people made a big move to establish the castle Guo Chamber, the degree of the shape man and the six animal bone methods, and the description of the artifacts, in order to seek their voice, nobility, and auspiciousness, and the law has a long and short and its voice, not ghosts and gods, and the number is natural."
From this point of view, the Legalists do not talk about ghosts and gods, but according to the actual situation of nature. The Legalists of the Shang Martingale faction do not mention sacrifices and do not talk about ghosts and gods, and their concept of ghosts and gods is very weak. "Zhuangzi Thief" contains the thief's saying, "If you tell me about ghosts, then I can't know it", and "Warring States Policy Zhongshan Strategy" contains Qin Jiangbai saying that he led his troops to win the battle, "all calculate the situation, the reason of nature, what gods have", and did not believe that ghosts and gods played any role, it can be seen that the average person in society during the Warring States period did not believe in ghosts.
Sleeping Tiger Di Qin Jian's "Rishu Ji Ji" is a special article about exorcising ghosts and avoiding ghosts, but some of the content says that not all "ghosts" that people think are ghosts, such as: "Wolf Heng called people to the door: 'Qiwu! 'Non-ghost also. Kill and enjoy (cooking) food, there is delicacy. "The wolf calls for someone to open the door to enter the room, which is not a "ghost", but a wolf. Killing such wolves and cooking them is still a delicacy. Similarly, there is a kind of dog that often goes to people's houses at night to "hold the husband, play the woman, and do not get it", playing with people, but people can't catch it. The "Blame" article says that this is not a "ghost", but a "divine dog disguised as a ghost", that is, a "ghost" pretended by a dog. The way to deal with it is to "cannon and eat, then stop", and cook the dog is finished. The "Blame" also contains:
There are many insects that attack the human room, it is a wildfire pretending to be a worm, and the human fire responds to it.
Birds, beasts, and insects are numerous, enter a room alone, and if (hoop) struck (whip), then stop. The influx of insects indoors is not a ghost, but a "wildfire" pretending to be a bug and entering the house. As long as people raise torches and roast the room, the situation of insects entering the room will stop. Although the statement that "wildfires are pseudo-insects" is incorrect, it is still advisable not to regard "insects attacking the human room" as a ghost thing, and it is still scientifically reasonable to avoid insects in the fire barbecue room. When you are alone at home, if many birds, beasts and insects rush indoors, it is not to pray to the gods, but to swing a bamboo whip. The "Blame" chapter that talks about ghosts actually tells people not to believe in "ghosts" here. The chapter also tells people that many natural phenomena should not be treated as ghosts. As:
The Heavenly Fire Burning Palace cannot be guarded, and if it is saved by white sand, it will stop.
When it comes to thunder burning people, it cannot be stopped, and if people burn the country (towards), it is over.
Thunder strikes people, and with its wood, it is enough.
The clouds attack the palace of people, and the fire country (direction) of people stops. Disasters caused by lightning should be saved by various means, not by exorcism. Lightning strikes the house and starts a fire, and it is necessary to raise white sand to put out the fire. Although it is not necessary to use white sand in practice, even ordinary sand can also fight fires, but it is much more useful to fight fires with white sand than to pray to ghosts and gods. When "lightning strikes people", it is also scientifically reasonable to hit it with wood, and wood is an insulator. The so-called "cloud-striking palace", covering the humid living room, barbecue with fire and moisture, should be a necessary method. The "Blame" also mentions that if there is a fishy water overflowing in the well, it should be "cushioned with sand". Sand is heavier than water, and mating in the well can play a role in filtration, and this method of cleaning the well is obviously the accumulation of people's experience. Although these methods are not discussed from a scientific point of view, they focus on using people's practical experience to prevent natural disasters. Such content in the "Blame" may be very close to the theory of the "form legalists" listed in the Hanshu Art Wenzhi.
Four
Compared with the Spring and Autumn period, the power of ghosts and gods in the Warring States period is no longer what it used to be. In the minds of many thinkers, ghosts and gods are often subject to certain laws. Zhuangzi said: "The ancient beast of the world, without desire and the world is full, without action and all things, in the deep and quiet and the people are determined, the "Record" says: 'Through one and everything is finished, without a heart and ghosts and gods.'" (Note: "Zhuangzi Tiandi". What he calls "one" is the "Tao," referring to the laws that govern the entire universe. Zhuangzi believed that the monarch should be inactive, desireless, and quiet, and only by integrating the "Tao", then all things will naturally grow, and the emptiness in the heart will make the ghosts and gods obey. Compared with the "Dao", the power of ghosts and gods is insignificant. The "Ji" quoted here, the "Classic Commentary" is called "the title of the book, written by Yun Laozi".
If this statement is true, then "ghosts and gods without intention" is the consistent thinking of Lao and Zhuang. In the "I Ching and Zhizhi", "God" is understood as the opposite transformation process of yin and yang, which is actually "Tao", so there are sayings such as "one yin and one yang is the Tao" and "Yin and Yang are unpredictable God". According to this statement, God refers to the "Tao"—that is, the movement of yin and yang is very rapid and subtle, and ordinary people cannot perceive it, so it is divine and mysterious. Here God and the Word are in a state of unity and oneness. Xunzi said that "yin and yang are great, wind and rain are beneficial, all things are born in harmony, each has its own cultivation, and it does not see its deeds but sees its merits, and the husband is called God" (Note: "Xunzi Heavenly Theory"). This statement, which is based on Taoist theory, actually fully affirms the relationship between God and Tao.
However, the general figures of the Warring States period did not have the deep thinking of the philosophers, so they still had a very positive attitude towards the role of ghosts and gods, and the role of ghosts and gods was still important in the minds of ordinary people during the Warring States period. For example, in the state of Chu, when the witch wind was prosperous, "King Huai of Chu sacrificed to ghosts and gods, and wanted to be blessed and helped, but Qin master" (Note: under the "Hanshu Suburban Worship History"). ）。 King Huai of Chu thought that the ghosts and gods would help him defeat the army of the Qin state, which shows that he was a monarch who respected the power of the ghosts and gods.
According to the agnostic point of view, the existence of Taoist post-learning or "ghosts" is a question of confusion, and the "Zhuangzi Fables" says: "If there is a corresponding, how can there be no ghosts and evil?" If there is no corresponding, what if there are ghosts and evil? "For the dead, sometimes they can see their people, hear their voices, and call them, how can it be said that there are no ghosts? But not all people can respond to all the dead, so how can one be sure that ghosts must exist? According to this view, "ghosts" are in the middle of what is not there, and no matter what kind of affirmation is made, it is wrong.
In Taoism, many gods are the result of attaining the "Dao", and Zhuangzi once said: "Fuxia clan obtains it, so as to attack the qi mother; Wei Dou is not the same; The sun and the moon will never end; It was bad enough to attack Kunlun; Feng Yi Dezhi, to travel Dachuan; Shoulder to shoulder, to the mountain; The Yellow Emperor obtained it to ascend to the clouds; Zhuan Yi obtained it, to deal with the Xuan Palace; Yu is strong and stands at the North Pole; The Queen Mother of the West got it, sitting on the little wide, not knowing the beginning, not knowing the end; Peng Zudezhi, upper and Yu, lower and five uncles; Fu said rightly, with Xiang Wuding, there is the world, riding the eastern dimension, riding the Miwei, and comparing it to the stars. (Note: "Zhuangzi Grand Master.") Some of these gods are gods by man; Some are gods of nature.
Zhuangzi believed that if the Fuxia clan gained the Tao, it would be in harmony with the "qi mother" as the god of yin and yang; If Beidou gets the way, there will never be a mistake; When the sun and the moon have attained the Tao, they will run forever; When the god called the bad is attained the way, he will enter the Kunlun Mountain and become the god of Kunlun; When Hebo Feng Yi has the way, he will be in charge of the great rivers; When the god called Shoulder has attained the Word, he will be in Mount Tai and become the god of Mount Tai; When the Yellow Emperor gains the way, he will ascend to the sky and preside over the heavenly court; If he obtains the Dao, he will be a god in the Xuan Palace in the north; When the god called Yuqiang attains the Tao, he will live in the north and become the god of the North Sea; When the Queen Mother of the West attains the Tao, she will dwell in the mountain of Shaoguang and become a god, and her divine power can reach the point of not knowing life and death, without beginning and end; When Peng Zu gains the Dao, he will live a long life, up to the era of Yu Shun, down to the period of the Spring and Autumn Five Hegemons; Fu, the minister of the Shang King Wuding, said that he would go to the sky and ride a horse between the two stars of Dongwei and Miwei, juxtaposed with the stars.
These statements show that in Zhuangzi's conception, gods not only existed quite widely, but were also the result of attaining the Tao. The gods before the Warring States period were often infinitely powerful, and the gods mentioned here, although they were also very powerful, if they left the Dao, their divine power would disappear. In this philosopher's concept, many parts of God's aura have been erased, God's status is no longer what it used to be, and those former prominent gods no longer have the momentum to look at everything, but lack confidence and wait for it. According to Taoist doctrine, "Dao" is more important than ghosts, gods, and gods, and it can be "gods, ghosts, gods, and emperors, born in nature" (Note: "Zhuangzi Grand Master"). Only the Tao can make ghosts and imperial capitals become gods.
Five
Regarding the relationship between God and man, thinkers in the Warring States period often thought deeply. Some thinkers believe that man has the power to subdue ghosts and gods. For example, Zhuangzi believes that "if you know inside and outside your heart, ghosts and gods will come to give up" (Note: "Zhuangzi Human World"). As long as you direct your hearing and vision into your body and eliminate the role of the mind, then the ghosts and spirits will come to your chest and obey your command. Zhuangzi also believed, "Those who know heavenly happiness have no heavenly grudges, no one is wrong, nothing is tired, and no ghosts are responsible." Therefore, it is said: its movement is also heaven, its silence is also earth, its heart is determined and the world is king, its ghosts are not evil, and its soul is not tired" (Note: "Zhuangzi Tiandao"). ）。 As long as people know the way of heaven, then the "ghost" will not be a problem, and can only "keep its ghost" (Note: "Zhuangzi Tianyun"). ), honestly stay in the dark.
Ghosts and gods not only lose their power in the face of the "Tao", but as long as the yin and yang are coordinated, the ghosts and gods cannot be harmed, that is, the so-called "yin and yang are quiet, and the ghosts and gods do not disturb" (Note: "Zhuangzi Qizhi"). ）。 In the chapter of "Zhuangzi Grand Master", there are words "take God as a horse, give cause and multiply it", which shows that God can be driven by people. Second, people will have the power of God, and such people are called "supreme people", "divine people", and "saints". Regarding the "god man", the "Zhuangzi Getaway" article contains "The mountain of defiance, there are gods and people living in it." The skin is like ice and snow, and the skin is like a virgin; Do not eat grains, suck air and drink dew; Ride the clouds, fly the dragon, and swim beyond the seas." The "Zhuangzi Heaven and Earth" also has an explanation of "god man", which means that "god man" "God rides the light, and the form perishes, which is said to be illuminated." Deadly and full, heaven and earth are happy and all things die, and all things are restored, this is called chaos", and it is believed that the noble spiritual realm of gods and men always radiates light.
Although light and the object it illuminates are reduced to nothingness, they remain empty and empty. At the end of life, God and man will rejoice with heaven and earth, and perish like all things. The death of the gods and men, like the return of all things to their roots, must also be in a state of chaos. This kind of "god man" who has life and death still exists in human character. Regarding "To Man", the "Zhuangzi Qi Theory of Things" contains, "To Man God! Daze burns but cannot be hot, the river Hanshu cannot be cold, the thunder breaks the mountain, and the wind shakes the sea without being alarmed", the "supreme person" who has reached the highest state of moral cultivation will not feel hot when Daze burns, will not feel cold when the Yellow River and Han water are frozen, and the thunder that breaks the mountains and the huge wind that sets off the waves of the sea will not make him feel frightened. Zhuangzi believed that "no one has himself, the god has no merit, and the saint has no name" (Note: "Zhuangzi Getaway"). ), they can reach the point where they have nothing, do not seek merit, do not seek fame, although they are human beings, but they already have the power of God.
For deep-thinking philosophers, "ghost" and "god" have the meaning of human soul and even spirit. This is very prominent in Taoist teachings. "Zhuangzi Gengsangchu" says "out but not opposite, see (present) its ghost", "destroy and have reality, one of the ghosts", it believes that the spirit and the body are separated, and the outside does not return, then this person is presented as a ghost; The destruction of the mind and leaving only the body is also a type of ghost. In short, the separation of spirit and body is the premise for the appearance of ghosts. In the famous fable of Yuding Xie Niu, Zhuangzi said that "God meets without sight, and the official knows and God wants to act" (Note: "Zhuangzi Health Lord"). ), also known as "ignoring the lack of hearing, holding God with silence, the form will be self-righteous", "God will keep the form, and the form will grow" (Note: "Zhuangzi Zaiyou"). ), also called "the body protects the gods, each has its own rituals and is called nature" (Note: "Zhuangzi Heaven and Earth"). ）。
The "god" mentioned here is not an ordinary god, but refers to the mental activity corresponding to the body. Zhuangzi also criticized Huizi as "the god of the son outside the son, and the spirit of the son" (Note: "Zhuangzi De Chong Fu"). The words "God" and "Essence" are actually one, and both refer to spirit. Therefore, such a "god" not only refers to the human soul, but also has the character of certain gods. In Zhuangzi's view, the human spirit can be spread away from the body (Note: Zhuangzi once said that "(fat) is poor for pay, fire is also transmitted, and I don't know the end" ("Zhuangzi Health Lord"), which means that although the fat salary that is on fire is burned out, but the fire can ignite another fat salary from this fat salary, so the spirit can leave the body and spread "without knowing the end" like this fire. Such a god already has the character of a god. Although Zhuangzi's statements are still ambiguous, they have touched on the major issue of the relationship between human body and spirit to a considerable extent. This should be a leap forward for the development of the concept of ghosts and gods in the pre-Qin era.
Six
The theory of exorcising ghosts and avoiding ghosts is an important content of the concept of ghosts and gods in the Warring States period, and it is also a tortuous reflection of the improvement of people's ability to conquer nature during the Warring States period.
In the ideological concepts of ordinary people in society during the Warring States period, the status of ghosts can be said to have plummeted compared with the Spring and Autumn period, and the so-called "ghosts harm the people and act in vain, and do not sheep (xiang)" in the book "Blame" in the Sleeping Tiger Land Qin Jian Ri book "Blame", can be said to be a concentrated expression of people's disgust for ghosts during the Warring States period. Qin tombs are mostly prevalent in bent limb burials, and there are still such burial customs in the Warring States period. Experts have different theories about the meaning of bent limb burial in Qin culture, such as that bending limb is a natural posture during rest or sleep; Flexion is done to bind the deceased to prevent his soul; Flexed limbs resemble the shape of a fetus, and bent limbs are buried to indicate that the deceased has returned to the past; Flexed burial can reduce the number of graves; Bending is a ritual of serving the elderly, and so on. None of these statements are satisfactory, and none of them explain the substantive significance of bent limb burial.
Later, after experts studied the records of Yunmeng Qin Jian's "Book of Days", they revealed the mystery and pointed out that this is a technique to avoid ghosts, because ghosts hate this posture (Note: Wang Zijin: "Qin people bend their limbs and burial imitation "lying down", Archaeology, No. 12, 1987). ）。 The Book of the Day records, "The ghost harms the people (none) deeds, for the people not sheep (xiang), tell as if they were supplied, summon (zhao) the way, and make the people not beautiful (罹) fierce (殃)." The evil of ghosts: 彼峷 sleeping, ji sitting, lianxing, qi (yǐ沍) 立", which means that when a person disturbed by a ghost complains to the "Japanese Person" (i.e. the Yin Yang Mathematician), the "Day Maker" will show him the art of avoiding ghosts. The ghosts are afraid of "lying down, sitting down, walking together, standing in a row," etc., and if the people take this form, they can avoid ghosts. The so-called "lying down" means lying in a curled cave.
The significance of the Qin people's limb burial is to take the posture of "lying down" to make "the evil of the ghost", so as to achieve the purpose of avoiding ghosts. Archaeological discoveries of the burial customs of the Qin people during the Warring States period can provide support for this understanding. Tombs in the middle of the Warring States period found in Lantian Lagoon, Shaanxi in the mid-80s (Note: Shaanxi Sixth Team, Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: "Brief Report on the Excavation of Warring States Tombs in Lantian Lagoon, Shaanxi", Archaeology, No. 12, 1988. ), a rectangular vertical tomb numbered M10, the owner of which is buried in the supine bent limb style, and seven stone gui are placed on the side of the head in order of size. Gui, originally a ghost-exorcising tool, may have originated from the "final kui" of the Shang Dynasty. The mask cover worn by the Shang Dynasty shamans to exorcise demons was called "Ultimate Aoi". "Aoi" was originally an exorcism mask with a square spire worn by shamans, and later the pointed tool used for pounding was called "Aoi", and its synonym is "vertebrae".
"Zhou Li Yuren" "Dagui is three feet long, on the pole, the head of the final kui, the Son of Heaven wears", Zheng Note "the final kui, the shiye". "Shuowen" "vertebrae, strike also, Qi is the end of the sun". In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Ma Rong's "Ode to Guangcheng" has the phrase "Huikui, Yangguan Axe" ("Later Hanshu Ma Rongchuan"), and has used Zhikui as a tool for vertebrae. The square spire mask worn by shamans is also a jade or stone chip with a square spire, both of which are believed to be associated with exorcising ghosts. There are four well-preserved tombs in the Warring States Cemetery of Lantian Lagoon, the burial style of which is only M10 for bent limb burial, the rest are straight limb burial, and only M10 is the tomb with Gui as the burial object. This should not be an accident. The owner of tomb M10 encountered trouble about his life and was particularly afraid of ghosts, so he bent his limbs and buried with Shi Gui, because the bent limb burial style and burial with Shi Gui are the needs of avoiding ghosts.
Sleeping Tiger Di Qin Jian Rishu "Blame" is a special article on exorcising ghosts and avoiding ghosts, from which it can be seen that the instruments used by people to exorcise ghosts during the Warring States period have a variety of textures and styles, and the main ones contained in the "Blame" chapter are as follows. First of all, bows, arrows, staffs, mallets, knives and other objects made of peach wood and thorns have great power to ward off ghosts (Note: The use of peach bows and thorns to drive away ominous things has existed in the late Spring and Autumn period. "Zuo Chuan" Zhao Gong Zhaogong in the fourth year of Lu Guo's Shen Feng on the matter of hiding ice, said: "It is also hidden in Tibet, black oysters, and Ji Huang to enjoy Sihan; It also comes out of the peach arc to remove its calamity." How to use the peach arc thorn to eliminate the disaster, Shen Feng did not elaborate. It was used to ward off ghosts in the Spring and Autumn period, and to exorcise ghosts during the Warring States period. ）。
Secondly, small people and dogs made of soil can avoid ghosts. Again, mulberry and paulownia have the effect of avoiding ghosts. The stick made of mulberry can be used specifically to deal with the kind of ghosts that deceive people, "with the mulberry heart as the rod, the ghost comes and strikes". Fourth, people's daily utensils and musical instruments, such as shoes, grates, clothes, drums, umbrellas, whips, etc., can be used to ward off ghosts. Fifth, pig feces, dog poop, and stinky swill can drive away ghosts (Note: Regarding the fact that washing one's body with dog poop can avoid ghosts contained in the "Blame" chapter, some experts have pointed out that the incident contained in the "Han Feizi Nei Chu Said" article is similar.
It is written: "Yan people are not confused, so they bathe dog Ya ()". "Yan Ren Li Ji is far away, his wife is privately connected to Shi, Ji suddenly arrives, Shi is inside, and his wife suffers. His housewife said, 'Let the prince go naked and unfastened, and go straight out, and my subordinates will not see him.' So Gongzi followed his plan and hurried out the door. Ji Yu: 'Who is it?' 'Everything' is known: 'nothing'. Ji Yu: 'What the hell do I see? The woman said, 'Yes. ''What can we do?'' 'Take the arrow () of the five animals and bathe it." 'Ji Yu: 'No. 'Nai Yu Yi Ya (). Take a bath to the orchid soup. This record shows that during the Warring States period, there was indeed a practice of washing one's body with or the of five animals to avoid ghosts, probably washing oneself with was always indecent, so there is another saying "bathing in orchid soup".
Compared with the fragrant "orchid soup" and smelly, there is naturally a world of difference, but it has also lost the original intention of fighting poison with poison. Judging from the records of the "Blame" chapter, the "bath with lan soup" theory did not occupy a dominant position during the Warring States period. ）。 Sixth, ash, sand, loess, white thatch, reeds, rice bran, white stones, water, etc. can repel ghosts. Dealing with "qiu ghosts" can "raise ashes" (Note: Regarding the matter of using ashes to avoid ghosts, Comrade Liu Lexian once cited the "Zhuangzi" quoted in "Art and Literature Cluster" for explanation (see his "Study on the Sleeping Tiger Di Qin Jian Rishu [Blame Essay]", Journal of Archaeology, No. 4, 1993). "Art and Literature Class Gathering" quotes "Zhuangzi" as follows: "Insert peach branches in the household, even under the ash, the boy is not afraid, and the ghost is afraid", and its so-called "ash" may refer to the ash of peach wood. ), to deal with the ghosts that insects turn into and the ghosts that young children turn into after death, you can apply ash to stop them.
In addition to the use of various utensils, human activities can also directly drive away ghosts, such as "raising ash and hitting the basket to make noise" to drive away "hill ghosts" is very typical. In addition, "drumming and making noise" can also scare ghosts and make them dare not come. If a person is angry for no reason, he may be a ghost, and he can "eat the road in the middle of the day, and stop it." Eating millet on the road at noon on the day of the fifth day can be said to be a fairly simple way to avoid ghosts. When people walk, "the ghost is standing on the road, and the solution is over, and it is over", to deal with this kind of roadblocker, people can untie their hair, scatter their hair and rush forward, and the roadblock ghost naturally avoids. What is revealed here is the truth that man and ghost meet the brave and win.
The image of the god and man appearing in the bronze engravings of the Warring States period is likely related to exorcism of ghosts. In the late 70s, tombs belonging to the middle Warring States period belonging to the era were found in Gaozhuang, Huaiyin City, Jiangsu Province (Note: Huaiyin City Museum: "Huaiyin Gaozhuang Warring States Tomb", Journal of Archaeology, No. 2, 1988. ), there are such gods and men in the bronze engravings unearthed. On the copper plate numbered 1:0146, a tortoise-shaped pattern is engraved in the center of the inner sole, and a snake pattern and three dragon patterns are engraved outward, all bounded by a rope pattern engraved on the line. The lower part of the wall is carved with triangular patterns, and in the middle, in addition to carved birds and beasts, there is also a person with two hands and a snake. The internal engraving of the abdomen is more intricate, in which there is a person holding a dagger in both hands, a double snake, and a double dragon on his feet, making a flying appearance. Similar god men are also found on copper plates numbered 1:0147, on which you can also see two god men, one holding a bird in each hand, a double serpent, a long rod on the head, and two snakes coiled on the rod; There is another god-man who is similar, except that he holds a serpent in each hand.
The two gods and men are surrounded by various monsters and birds, which may indicate that the gods and men have the divine power to drive all things, and although the image of the ghost does not appear in the engraving, the actions of the god man are a depiction of the image of the wizard who exorcises ghosts. In the bronze engraving numbered 1:114-1, among the gods depicted are a man with two dragons on his feet, holding two dragons in his hands, wearing a flat square mask on his head, and five ornaments with thin and thick upper and lower thicknesses erected on the mask, the mask is round eyes and a large mouth, and the nose is connected to the top. This bronze engraving also contains a god-like figure, also with the image of a square mask. These figures of gods and figures are also found in bronze engravings numbered 1:114-2, and the features of wearing square masks on their heads are evident.
The inner wall of the engraved bronze sin numbered 1:0138 has a masked god man, Yange with one hand and a snake in the other, making a running appearance; Another god wears a bird-shaped mask, and also runs with one hand and a snake with the other; There is also a god man wearing a bird-shaped mask on his head, a feathers at his waist, and a long pole on his shoulder, with 4 mountains at one end and 5 mountains at one end, also in the shape of running, judging from the situation of his mountain, it has the powerful mana of moving mountains, and the ghost should not be its opponent. The bronze engravings of Gaozhuang tombs often show the image of a god with a double horse body, Chang Er and two snakes, with a square head and horns, or a vertical ornament on the head. The exorcist contained in the "Zhou Li Fang Xiang Clan" is called "Fang Xiang Clan", which means "Fang Xiang's palm bearskin with bearskin, golden four eyes, holding the Goyang shield, handsome and subordinate to the times (傩), and driving away the epidemic in the Suo Room". The Yango in the bronze engraving of Gaozhuang and the god man of "Fang Xiang" are probably depictions of the image of the exorcist wizard.
Source: Studies in Chinese History, No. 2, 1998