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introduction
The Byzantine Macedonian Renaissance refers to a period of prosperity in politics, culture, art and other fields from about the end of the 9th century to the middle of the 11th century. During this period, the Byzantine emperors not only strengthened their control over art and religion, but also further prospered and developed in terms of images and architecture.
In terms of images, graphic art of the Byzantine Macedonian Renaissance reached a high level, especially religious art represented by icons and frescoes and arts and crafts represented by ivory carving. These works played an important role in expressing religious culture, magnificent styles and promoting artistic exchange.
I. Characteristics of pictorial art during the Byzantine Macedonian Renaissance and its expression in the expression of imperial power
1. Emperor hunting image
Hunting scenes are carved on the two decorative panels before and after this ivory letter. The decorative panel on the façade of the ivory letter is carved with two knights hunting lions, and the overall composition of the picture is symmetrical, with both horses raised their front hooves and their heads facing back, looking at the lion in the middle of the picture.
The two knights are located on the left and right, both hunting lions sideways and backwards, and the knight on the right wields a longsword in his right hand and a round shield decorated with a star pattern in his left hand; The knight on the left draws his bow and shoots arrows, while already having two shot arrows on the lion's back.
Both knights were dressed in the emperor's uniform, which was the same shape as the military uniform worn by the two knights on the lid of the box, but the helmets were slightly different. The knight on the left has a feather-like decoration on the tip of his helmet, and the knight's helmet on the right is engraved with a star image similar to the pattern on his shield.
The image represented on the ivory plaque on the back shows a scene of hunting a wild boar. In the center of the background is an oak tree, which is the central axis of the whole picture, and the tree is knotted with acorns. A wild boar is located in front of an oak tree, and on the left of the picture, a hunter in military uniform and helmet stabs at the wild boar with a spear, and three hunting dogs around the wild boar attack the wild boar in unison.
The background of both hunting scenes is not shown in detail, so it is difficult to infer the specific social scene in which the hunting activity is located.
During the Roman Empire and early Byzantium, professional hunting was used as a mass entertainment or public performance (venatio), and this performative hunting scene was often represented in mosaics during the Roman Empire.
By the middle of the Byzantine period, most of the performances of hunting animals in the arena were not seen, and most of them were performances between animals. According to documents, around the city of Constantinople in the middle of Byzantium, there was the emperor's hunting enclosure, which included animals such as lions and wild boars.
Therefore, it can be speculated that the two hunting scenes on this ivory letter may represent the Byzantine emperor hunting in the royal enclosure. This group of hunting images is supposed to be related to the patronage of the emperor, showing the heroism of the emperor and the strength of the imperial power.
Many elements of this group of hunting images inherit the style and elements of the Roman Empire and the early Byzantine period, such as swords, bows and arrows, and spears, and weapons have been used extensively in Romanesque-style mosaics.
The use of these three weapons can be seen in the hunting mosaic in the collection of the Wasester Museum of Art, which was unearthed in a villa near Antioch in the early 6th century AD.
The use of saddles is also absent from the hunting lion image, while the knight in the triumphant scene of the lid of the box is used. The widespread use of saddles in the Western world should have roughly begun between the 7th and 9th centuries AD, which shows that the use of saddles was not used in Roman Empire and early Byzantine images, and the Macedonian dynasty in the middle of Byzantium has long used saddles, so it is speculated that the omission of saddles from lion hunting images may be to inherit the iconographic tradition of ancient Rome and early Byzantium.
However, some of the pictorial elements of these two sets of hunting scenes are at odds with the Roman Byzantine tradition, and these pictorial elements also imply the identity of the hunter. In hunting images from the Roman Empire and early Byzantium, hunters wore robes or cloaks and did not use helmets; The hunters carved on this ivory letter were all dressed in armor and helmets, and the helmets worn by the hunters were military helmets.
In the artistic creation of the Roman Empire, the emperor's crown rarely appeared as a helmet with feather-like ornaments, which was mostly used as an escort accompanying the emperor. However, in mid-Byzantine art, kings often wore this feathered helmet (toupha), and this feathered helmet often appeared in scenes of the emperor's victory and triumph.
A Byzantine silk fabric in the collection of the Diözesanmuseum Bamberg in Germany depicts the emperor riding a triumphant horse, and two harvest goddesses presented their crowns to the emperor, one of whom held a feathered crown to the emperor.
The emperor on his horse was Basile II (reigned 976-1025 AD), and this triumphal scene may be depicted by Basile II's triumphant return from his victory over Bulgaria in 1018 AD and his entry into Constantinople or Athens. Therefore, it is speculated that the knight with a feathered helmet carved on the Troyes ivory letter should be the emperor (or co-emperor) of the Byzantine Empire.
In addition, most emperors in Roman Byzantine art were not shown to be armed with bows and arrows, but as with long swords. From this, we can speculate that the two hunters in the lion hunting scene continue the pattern of character combination on the lid of this ivory box, that is, the hunter with a long sword is the emperor of the Byzantine Empire, located on the right side of the picture; The hunter with a bow and arrow on the left side of the picture is the heir of the emperor or the co-ruling emperor.
According to documents, in the history of the Byzantine Empire, there are stories of princes guarding the emperor during hunting, and Basil I hunted a wolf that attacked the then emperor Michael III during the hunt before taking the throne, and this event became an important bargaining chip for Basil I's accession to the throne. From this, we can infer that the lion hunting scene also shows the scene of the prince guarding the emperor in the hunting ground, which should also have certain political implications.
This combination of character relationships also echoes the two figures on the lid. The scene of victory and triumph (adventus) on the lid of the box hints at the city-state's admiration for the emperor; The emperor's hunt with his entourage to the throne showed the emperor's bravery and the strength of imperial power, and also implied the idea of loyalty to the monarch. Therefore, the two scenes are relatively closely related, and in the court of the middle Byzantine period, there is also a tradition of linking victory in war with victory in hunting: in the 10th century AD, Dyodor, an aide to the Byzantine Emperor Romanos II (reigned 945-963 AD), to the emperor, compared the emperor's victory in the hunting grounds to the victory of the barbarians.
Another notable detail is the pose of two knights in the lion hunting scene, both of them facing sideways and backwards, while the horse raises its front hooves. This pose is not found in the Romano-Byzantine iconographic tradition, but similar pictorial representations exist in artistic creation in the middle of Byzantine; The knight in the Roman-Byzantine mosaic shows a twist at the waist on the side and back, and the legs are still clamped in the saddle, thus ensuring stability when riding; The legs of the two riders here are also twisted back, a posture that does not seem to be conducive to riding, more like a static motion freeze. This hunting pose is often represented on Sassanid silver plate images.
The same hunting posture is depicted on a Sassanid silver plate now in the Bastan Museum in Iran. The creation of mid-Byzantine art borrowed a lot of graphic elements from the Persian Sassanid dynasty and the Islamic world, and this chivalric figure is also borrowed from the image tradition of the Persian Sassanid dynasty.
2. Phoenix image
The decorative panels at the left and right ends of this ivory letter are carved with an image of a phoenix. The phoenix stands sideways, wings spread and looking back, surrounded by curly grass patterns.
The application of phoenix images is not uncommon in Byzantine art, and from the point of view of image analysis, early phoenix images in Byzantine art inherited the Roman Empire-style phoenix images.
A mosaic now in the Louvre Museum in France bears witness to the inheritance of the Roman style in the Byzantine Empire. This mosaic is dated to the 5th century AD and was unearthed in Antioch, a city on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, and is originally a large size (12.35 m long and 10.20 m wide) and depicts the floor decoration of a private mansion.
The phoenix is located in the center of the picture, surrounded by neatly repeated roses, the phoenix stands on the ruins and is reborn, with a circular halo above his head, the light radiates around, and the decorative band around the picture is composed of repeated images of winged goats, the goats are facing each other, and the flowers and grass patterns are spaced in between.
The phoenix image was widely used among the rulers of the Roman Empire and was regarded as a symbol of the longevity of the empire and the eternity of the emperor's power. Images of phoenixes are also common on gold coins of the Roman Empire, and there is a phoenix image on a gold coin created during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, which also appears as standing on ruins with a halo on its head. Apparently, the image of the phoenix in the early artistic creation of the Byzantine Empire continued the tradition of the Roman Empire.
By the mid-Byzantine Empire during the Macedonian Renaissance, Chinese-style phoenix images were concentrated in the artistic creation of the time. The Chinese-style phoenix image is quite different from the Roman Empire's phoenix image, and the Chinese phoenix image is usually shown as flying or running with wings spread; The images of the phoenix in ancient Rome are all static, and the phoenix has a halo on its head.
In addition, the feathers depicted in the Chinese-style phoenix image are more ornate and delicate, and the phoenix image often appears with the entwined floral pattern, which is not found in the ancient Roman style phoenix image.
According to the comparison of image styles, the image of a phoenix carved on the left and right sides of this ivory letter is similar to the phoenix image popular in the Tang Dynasty in China.
The stone lintels in several aristocratic tombs from the early Tang to the High Tang period are carved symmetrically distributed phoenix images, surrounded by curly grass patterns, similar images are also expressed in arts and crafts works. This combination of images may have been influenced by image models from the early Tang Dynasty. The exchanges between the Byzantine Empire and China were more frequent in the early Tang Dynasty, and there is no direct record in the documentary historical records that the Tang Dynasty phoenix images affected the Byzantine Empire, but there is a record of the Eastern Roman Empire and its emissaries with the Tang Dynasty in the Old Book of Tang:
A great Qin in the state of Fuling, above the West Sea, bordering Persia to the southeast. The place is more than 10,000 li, the city of Leh is 400, and the Yiju is even subordinate... Where the Western Regions are precious, there are many countries. Emperor Sui often sent a flicker, but he could not arrive. In the seventeenth year of Zhenguan, King Bodoli sent an envoy to offer red glass, green gold essence and other things. Emperor Taizong sent a letter of condolences and gave Aya Qiyan... In the first year of Dazu, the reinstatement envoy came to the dynasty. In the first month of the seventh year of the first century, its main leader sent the great chief of Tocharian to offer two lions and two antelopes. Within a few months, he sent great monks to pay tribute.
From the Old Book of Tang's account of the state of Ling, we can roughly infer that there were relatively frequent exchanges between China and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) during the early Tang Dynasty, and the emperors of the Byzantine Empire sent envoys to China several times. The identity of the "Whisk King Podoli" recorded in the Old Book of Tang is still disputed by scholars, and the French sinologist Bautis believes that "Fried King Podoli" is Pope Theodorus I (reigned November 24, 642 – May 14, 649), and the pope's accession to the throne in 642 AD is the sixteenth year of Zhenguan.
And the "Old Book of Tang" recorded in the "seventeenth year of Zhenguan, King Bodoli sent an envoy to offer red glass, green gold essence and other things", according to the time inferred, it was during the reign of Pope Dedolu I, the Eastern Roman Empire sent envoys to China, so it is speculated that the "King of Whisk Podoli" is Pope Dedolu I.
However, at that time, exchanges between the Byzantine Empire and China should have been extremely limited and limited to the ruling classes of the two countries.
After the Battle of Tyros in 751 AD, the Tang Dynasty gradually withdrew from the Western Regions, and the communication between the Byzantine Empire and the East was also influenced by the forces of the Arab Empire. Therefore, it is speculated that the Chinese-style phoenix image may have been transmitted to the Byzantine Empire through diplomatic gifts in the early Tang Dynasty, inherited by the rulers of the Macedonian dynasty, and eventually used in artistic creation.
The phoenix image seems to have no connection with the emperor's triumph and hunting images, but combined with the special meaning of the phoenix image in Chinese culture and several other sets of image meanings, it can be inferred that the phoenix image also symbolizes imperial power and national prosperity in this context.
In volume 31 of the "Tang Huiyi" "On Public Opinion", there is a passage that records the special meaning of the phoenix decorative pattern:
Press, the sun, moon and stars have been cast on the banner; The Dragon and Tiger Volcano is not more than ancient. And Yunlinfeng has the name of the four spirits, Xuangui has the responsibility of the country, Yun has the name of the official, and the water has the auspicious feeling of virtue.
The phoenix image has a very beautiful auspicious meaning, symbolizing peace and prosperity. In the Tang Dynasty, the use of patterns was often limited by status hierarchy. A passage from volume 32 of the Tang Huiyi, "Under Public Opinion", reflects the hierarchical division of decorative patterns at that time:
On May 22 of the first year, the embroidered robe was given to the military attaché of the three products, and there were still admonitions in the robe. The kings are decorated with coiled dragons and deer, the prime minister as Fengchi, Shangshu as the pair of geese, the left and right guards as the pair of qilin, the left and right Wuwei as the pair of tigers, the left and right eagle Yangwei as the pair of eagles, the left and right Qianniu Wei as the pair of ox, the left and right leopard Taowei as the pair of leopards, the left and right Yuling Wei as the opposite falcon, the left and right prison guards as the lion and the left and right Jinwuwei as the opposite pig.
This text records the classification of patterns on the clothing of kings and officials, and it can be found that the phoenix pattern had a high status at that time. According to this document, the decorative patterns on the official uniforms of officials in the Tang Dynasty had a fairly strict hierarchy, and the phoenix pattern could only be used above the prime minister. Therefore, it is speculated that the image of the phoenix has a similar meaning on this Macedonian ivory letter, and together with the emperor's triumph and hunting images, it constitutes a symbol of imperial power.
epilogue
The Ivory Letter Decoration images from the Byzantine Macedonian period in the Troyes Cathedral show the openness and tolerance of foreign civilizations in the middle of the Byzantine Empire. Images such as the triumph of the emperor and the hunt continue to inherit the traditions of the Roman Empire and the early Byzantine period, and also absorb the iconographic traditions of the Persian Sassanid Empire. Since the image of the phoenix on the ivory letter is not consistent with the traditional phoenix image in ancient Rome, but is closer to the Chinese Tang dynasty phoenix image, it is speculated that it was influenced by the East.
Taken together, these images express the theme of imperial power: the triumph of the emperor expresses the supremacy of imperial power in both ancient Rome and early Byzantium; The image of the king's hunting was also an expression of the ruler's power in the tradition of the Sassanid Persian Empire; The phoenix image is placed at both ends of the ivory letter, but in the ancient Chinese iconographic tradition, it was also restricted to the use of the noble. In summary, it can be inferred that the image on this ivory letter, although derived from different civilizations, jointly constructed the expression of imperial power during the Macedonian dynasty.
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