The great unified dynasties such as the Han and Tang dynasties in ancient China always thought that they were in the middle of the world, and regarded the neighboring countries and ethnic minority regimes as the "lower country" of Fanyi that was inferior to their own civilization. The foreign relations of the Central Dynasty with its neighbors were thus incorporated into the tributary system established on the principle of the difference between the two and the summer.
The surrounding governments need to regularly "Nagon" to the central dynasty, and every wedding and funeral festival, they should send envoys to apply; The central dynasty should award "rewards" to the country that came to pay tribute when the envoys returned to China, and the value of the return generally exceeded the tribute paid by the country. Except for military horses from the northwest and southwest and a few rare medicinal herbs, for the Central Dynasty, tribute and rewards were mainly necessary symbols or symbols to maintain the political relationship between the suzerainty and the vassals, so it was obligatory to lose money.
For neighboring countries, paying tribute to the Central Dynasty is actually a special form of doing business, which we can call "tribute and one return" trade. This special form of trade is not only used by the royal families or governments of neighboring countries, but also by private traders. In the Chinese historical records, many of the foreign envoys recorded in Chinese history were actually private merchants who fraudulently obtained "rewards". The above situation changed during the Song Dynasty.
On the one hand, the development of the East-West trade market has stimulated people's appetite to exchange "tribute" for "return". The frequency of tributary missions from various countries has increased rapidly, the size of the missions has become larger and larger, and the time spent in China has become longer and longer. The poor and weak government of the Northern Song Dynasty was really overwhelmed, so instead of daring to "beckon" the countries to come to the dynasty like the Han and Tang dynasties, they instead pursued the national policy of "not refusing if they come, and not chasing after them if they go"; moreover, they even ordered foreign missions to be intercepted in Guangzhou and other port cities to prevent them from entering Beijing, and ordered people to select some tributes, give them back, and send them back to China on the spot.
On the other hand, the import and export taxes levied on merchants who traded by sea gradually became a considerable income in the southeast coastal countries in the late Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, and were an important part of the country's revenue after entering the Song Dynasty. Therefore, while the Song government tried to curb the money-losing transaction of "paying tribute in return" as much as possible, it actively recruited Fanbao to do business in China.
In the Yuan Dynasty, tariffs were levied on domestic and foreign merchants engaged in overseas trade, "because the country is greatly profitable" (meaning "it is an important matter related to the country's large economic income"), so foreign trade is protected by the government. The traditional concept of tribute, on the other hand, has undergone a fundamental change.
The royal family of the Yuan Dynasty regarded the "land of sunrise and sun" as a gift of immortal life to the golden family. Whether it is a conquered country or a peaceful submissive country, it must enter the dynasty, enter the hostage, send troops, salaries, and servants to cooperate with their military operations, and also provide various cultural relics and treasures according to the requirements of the golden family. Therefore, the Yuan government's order of foreign tributes actually carried the intention and nature of economic plunder against them.
Most of these overseas wars ended in crushing defeats. The Yuan Dynasty exhausted its national strength for foreign aggression and was still unable to force the surrounding countries to completely submit. After Seongjong came to the throne, he had to adjust his foreign policy, recognize the fait accompli, and be satisfied with the nominal vassals of all countries (except Japan).
From the time of the Great Mongol State, the official relations between Yuan and these countries, after seventy or eighty years of twists and turns, began to return to a state similar to that of the previous dynasty. The cessation of war and confrontation has further promoted the further prosperity of official and non-governmental international trade, pushing the foreign economic exchanges that have been continuous since the Southern Song Dynasty to a flourishing level.
The Mongol army first entered Goryeo in 1218 when it joined forces with the Goryeo army to attack the Khitan "rebels". Goryeo and Mongolia are "brothers" and cannot stop Mongolia's arbitrary blackmail against it. In 1221, the Sogong items sent by Mongolia to Goryeo included 10,000 collars of otter skins, 3,000 horses of fine silk, and 10,000 jin of kapok. Plunder provoked resistance, and Mongol armies continued to march into the territory. Most of the adult men in northern Goryeo were killed and taken captive.
In the first year of the reign (1260), Kublai Khan ascended the throne, the king of Goryeo died, and the Yuan government sent Wang Wei (later renamed Wang Sik), who was acting as a proton in China, back to Goryeo to take the throne. Won Yeon announced the withdrawal of troops from Goryeo and "don't ask anything" about Goryeo's past resistance, but demanded that the Goryeo royal family fulfill their promise to move the capital from Ganghwa Island back to the old royal capital. Then, the Yuan court issued an edict to Wang Zhi to "compile the people, send troops and brigades, deliver grain and salaries, and help the military reserves", and the requisition continued, causing dissatisfaction among the Goryeo government and the public.
In 1269, the Goryeo minister deposed Wang Sik and established a new lord. Yuan dispatched troops to press the border. More than 60 cities in Goryeo and the northwestern region were surrendered to Goryeo and returned to Goryeo more than 20 years later. The original king was restored, and the anti-Yuan army retreated to Ganghwa Island. Yuan used Tara to "rush for the Southern Song Dynasty and Japan", but under the pretext of denouncing the remnants of the rebel Goryeo retainers, he forced the Luo state to surrender. Later, due to Goryeo's request, he returned Tara to Goryeo. There has been no more war between Won and Koryo since.
From 1280 onwards, the Yuan government set up the "Zhengdongxing Chungshu Province" (also known as the "Nippon Province") in Goryeo for a long time, using Goryeo as a military base to attack Japan. After two failed battles in Japan, the establishment of the province remained retained, but the imperial court no longer appointed governors and only used the king of Goryeo as the prime minister. It differs in nature from the provinces of the Yuan Dynasty. The prime minister of the province, concurrently served by the King of Goryeo, had the power to set up his own government, take examinations, collect taxes, and enforce orders within his territory.
As people said at the time, Goryeo "has a temple to serve its predecessors, a hundred officials to lead its office, its reward orders to carry out its country, and the levy is all the land of the three hans, only use it, and do not enter the heavenly house." The Goryeo government largely exercised national sovereignty independently during the Yuan Dynasty.
However, as a "vassal state" of the Yuan Dynasty, Goryeo was often exploited and oppressed by the Yuan Dynasty. In order to encircle the Southern Song Dynasty, the Yuan government sent people to Goryeo to "ask for a wife's room" for them. Envoy Won, along with Goryeo officials, detained single women, "wives of rebels, and daughters of monks." When they were sent to Yuan, "the cry was heaven-shaking, and the viewers could not help but lament." During the expedition to Japan, the Yuan Dynasty forced Goryeo to send pawns, boatmen, warships and military food, which became a heavy burden for the Goryeo military and people.
After entering the 14th century, economic and cultural exchanges between Won and Goryeo gradually developed. During the Yuan Dynasty, many Goryeo people lived in Middle-earth and even served as officials in China. Many Goryeo scholars and monks maintained very close relations with the Chinese literati. In 1310, King Wang Chang of Goryeo gave way to his son, and he built a manjudang in Dadu as a colt and king Shen, studying and living idly. Goryeo Confucian student Lee Qixian was called to accompany Wang Zhang, and also lived in China for a long time, learning peace with the famous minister Dae-Confucianism at the time, and was the most famous literary scholar in the history of Goryeo during this period.
After the Yuan Dynasty resumed the imperial examination, the Goryeo people often traveled thousands of miles to the capital, and some of them had already passed the self-held scientific examination in their own country and became officials. They preferred to take off their official robes and return to China as "beings" to compete in the field, because "those who have won their country are not as proud as those who have won the court."
Goryeo "Secret Japan". Not long after Kublai Khan put Wang Zhi on the throne, he oversaw his "military parade and shipbuilding" to prepare for Japan's conquest, and on the other hand, sent national messengers across the sea from Goryeo to solicit Japan to "come to the dynasty." In the seven years after 1267, the messengers of the Yuan Kingdom or the special personnel who delivered the national letters and the Zhuwen went to Japan five times. The Japanese emperor had ordered his courtiers to prepare a reply to the Yuan Dynasty, but it was not delivered to the Yuan court due to the strong attitude of the Kamakura shogunate that he would not return.
In the eleventh year of the Yuan Dynasty (1274), the Yuan Dynasty, with Xindu as the marshal of the capital and the Goryeo native Hong Chaqiu as the deputy marshal, led the Mongol, Han and Goryeo conquest troops totaling 25,000 people to cross the sea from Hepu, attacked the Japanese islands of Tsushima and Ichiki, and landed in Chikuzen Hakata Bay and other places. The Yuan army encountered fierce resistance from Japan here, could not go deep, and encountered a hurricane, and the battleships were destroyed on the reef, and they were forced to squad. This year was the eleventh year of the Japanese Emperor Kameyama, Bunnaga, and Japanese history called the "Battle of Bunnaga".
The following year, Kublai Khan sent another envoy to Japan. The shogunate wanted to make the Yuan court "forever prying", so he killed the Yuan envoy, but still did not return. While guarding Mongolia along the border seas, Japan also formulated a plan to "conquer foreign countries", registering the ages and weapons of large and small ships, sailors and helmsmen, and soldiers on the expedition within a limited day in the country, declaring that "if you evade, you can be restricted." In the years that followed, the Japanese army continued to harass the coasts of Goryeo and the Yuan Dynasty, possibly related to this plan to "conquer a foreign country."
The news of the Yuan envoy's killing in Japan did not reach China until the beginning of the seventeenth year of the Yuan Dynasty (1280). In the summer, Kublai Khan summoned the Song general Fan Wenhu to "discuss the conquest of Japan", and soon established a conquest of the eastern province to prepare for another conquest of Japan. By May of the eighteenth year of the Yuan Dynasty (1281), the Yuan Eastern Road Army, led by Xindu and others, crossed the Korean Strait from Hepu. The Jiangnan Army was mainly composed of the Song Dynasty naval divisions that surrendered to the Yuan, including the "Zhang Shijie Defeated Army", and even the "Song Mongol and Hui Armies Evading Crime", led by Fan Wenhu, and went to sea from Qingyuan.
Yuan used the Song army to expand the land on his behalf, and by the way, he also achieved the purpose of surrendering without killing and surrendering to destroy himself. The two armies met on Ichikijima, Japan, with a total strength of 140,000 troops and more than 4,400 ships. The Jiangnan Army was late in losing its deadline. After the convergence, most of the Yuan army entered Tunying Island. Without a major war, it is a hurricane.
The Yuan army bound the ship for the city, but still could not withstand the wind and waves, "shocking and crashing, the boat was broken and exhausted." The sergeant shouted, drowning in the sea like numbness." The crusade generals abandoned more than 100,000 soldiers on the island, and chose good ships to flee back. The Japanese army took advantage of the situation to attack, killing all the Mongol, Goryeo, and northern Han soldiers, while the Southern Song Dynasty surrendered its army into slavery. Japanese history calls this battle the "Battle of Hong'an".
At the end of the century, there was no government-to-government relationship between China and Japan. But even during the war, civilian trade between the two countries was not completely interrupted. After the armistice, Japanese merchant ships came to China more for cargo trade. Gyeongwon is the main port for trade with Japan. In the 46 years from the ninth year of Daitoku (1305) to the tenth year of Zhengzheng (1350), 33 years left accurate records of Japanese merchant ships coming to China.
The largest quantity of Chinese goods exported is porcelain. Copper coins and copper utensils are also the main products purchased by Japan in China. Goods imported from Japan include gold, refined swords, fans, and so on. In addition to merchants, a large number of Japanese monks went to China to exchange Buddhism. At the same time, Chinese Zen monks were also invited by Japanese monks and even the Kamakura Hojo clan to cross the sea east on merchant ships. Some Japanese scholars even refer to the 100 years around the 13th century as Japan's "Watarai Monk Century."
According to research, there were no less than 30 Chinese monks in Dongdu during this period whose names and deeds could be examined. Except for a few from Sichuan, most of them are senior monks from Hangzhou, Mingzhou, Taizhou, Wenzhou, Zhangzhou and other coastal cities in the south of the Jiangsu River. Most of them presided over Zen temples in Kamakura, Hakata, Kyoto and other places in Japan. At this time, famous monasteries such as Jianchang and Yuanjue, because the presidence of successive generations was mostly "Dulai monks", and even Chinese was used as a daily language in the temple.
After entering the 14th century, the Kamakura shogunate in Japan fell into a political crisis. Bankrupt samurai and smuggling merchants were invited to forcibly buy and sell and armed smuggling at China's coastal ports, "that is, dissatisfied, burned the city and robbed the residents." This is the so-called "bonobo". By the middle and late Ming dynasties, due to the government's strict sea ban, pirates off the southeast coast of China colluded with a small number of real Japanese ronin, and the wokou became a more serious social problem.
In 1250, after Kublai Khan destroyed the kingdom of Dali, he returned north, leaving Wuliang Hetai to continue through Yunnan without serving the tribes. In 1258, this Mongol army invaded Annam. King Annan lost the battle and fled the island from the capital to Thang Long. The Mongol army withdrew due to the heat of the summer. King Annan immediately sent an envoy to ask for possession, "begging for three years and one tribute."
In the early period of Kublai Khan, the Yuan court charged King Annan with the "six things" of entering the dynasty, accepting quality, including households, signing troops, losing endowments, and placing Daru Huachi in prison. King Annan cleverly disobeyed and fought with the Yuan government for more than ten years. After the destruction of the Song Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty would have some overseas affairs and wanted to set up a province in Annam in order to control the neighboring Southeast Asian countries such as Champa, Chenla, Siam, and Burma, but in the 21st year of the Yuan Dynasty (1284), it invaded Annan in the name of conquering the city under false roads.
The land of Annan is densely forested and rainy, and the summer steaming epidemic boils. The usual strategy of the local army and people to resist the foreign enemy is to first resist the enemy with sniping, break its sharp spirit, and then clear the wilderness, go to the mountains and forests, wait for the summer rain and epidemic, so that the enemy will run out of food and be forced to withdraw the troops; At this time, they took the initiative to encircle and block, setting up ambushes everywhere, turning the withdrawal of the invading army into a major rout.
In the 1284 War against the Yuan, as well as the two national anti-Yuan actions in 1287 and 1288, Annan adopted such a strategy. After the Yuan army returned to China, King Annan sent an envoy to ask for peace and sent a golden man to the Yuan dynasty to replace his own son of Tian. After that, the two countries exchanged envoys, and the Yuan Dynasty did not raise the matter of letting the Annan King into the dynasty and placing officials under pressure.
Champa was a vassal state of Annam at the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty. In 1280, the lord of Champa made a courtier to Yuan, paying tribute to treasures and rhino elephants. In the following year, Yuan made him the "King of Champa", and set up Champa Province as the frontier of the countries of the South China Sea. By the end of the 19th year of the Yuan Dynasty (1282), Yuan Yan detained the envoys of the Yuan Dynasty who had passed through the territory with Champa, and ordered that the original instigation of "that is, its landlord province to pacify the peace" was instigated by Haido to lead the division to march. The Champa army first resisted at Tsukiki Castle on the western outskirts of the capital, and after defeat, retreated into the mountains. He also used Annan, Zhenla and other national soldiers to resist the Yuan, luring them deep and besieging them. The Yuan army fought for more than a year and could not end the war.
By March of the 21st year of the Yuan Dynasty (1284), reinforcements from the Yuan Dynasty arrived in Champa, by which time the capital had been ordered to attack Annan from the north of Champa. The division of the Yuan Houzhi sent an edict to the king of Zhancheng, and returned the army. Later, Champa appealed to both the Yuan court and Annan Nagon, trying to rely on the Yuan dynasty to prevent Annan from plundering his territory. In 1320, Champa defeated Annam's military offensive and stopped paying tribute to the Annamite people, but maintained its contribution to the Yuan dynasty.
The following year after the Yuan Dynasty withdrew from Champa, Champa paid tribute. Along with them were the envoys of the Chenla Kingdom. In the 29th year of the Yuan Dynasty (1292), the envoy who traveled south with the army of the Yuan Dynasty to attack Java visited Chenla, but this time the envoy did not hear from Chenla as soon as he left. After Emperor Yuan Chengzong ascended the throne, he sent another envoy to summon him. There was Zhou Daguan in the mission.
They moved from the floating sea of Mingzhou in the second year of Yuanzhen (1296) and arrived in Jinla in autumn. Zhou Daguan stayed in Chenla for a year, and returned to the "Records of Chenla Customs", which recorded many interesting phenomena in Cambodian society and culture during the Angkor era. The kingdom of Chenla has declined, and some parts of the country have been left to war with the Siamese people. The name Cambodia also appears in the Chinese historical materials of the Yuan Dynasty, as "dry in the past" and "gan without chasing."
In the late 11th century, the Siamese (Thai-speaking people, now also known as Thai) scattered between the present-day Lancang and Mekong rivers and the upper reaches of the Salween River gradually broke away from Chenla control and established a number of independent small states.
In 1238, the Siamese in the upper reaches of the Chao Phraya River captured the capital of Chenla, Sogutai, and established the Siamese state, called the Sogutai Dynasty. After about half a century of development, it spread to most of present-day Laos in the east, Bai Ku in the west south of Burma, and possibly Loh Hu in the lower Chao Phraya River in the south, and even some small city-states in the northern part of the Malay Peninsula.
In 29 AD, the King of Siam sent an envoy to Guangzhou to pay tribute to the Yuan Dynasty. Kublai Khan sent an envoy to Siem the following year. According to the "Yuan History", at the beginning of Chengzong's accession to the throne, there were "Bichabuli City Dare Muding" envoys to pay tribute. Bichabuli is one of the subordinate cities of the Kingdom of Siam, and Dan Muding means king. At this time, the reigning king of the Sokutai dynasty was King Khumlamagan. It is difficult to determine whether this "Dare Muding" sent by Chengzong is King Kunlamagan, the lord of the Sugutai Dynasty, or just the city lord who must not be chased. China's porcelain making technology was introduced to the Sugu Tai Dynasty around this time.
Luo Hu was a regime established by the Mon people. Luo Hu and Yuan Tong envoys, slightly earlier than Siam. In the mid-14th century, the son-in-law of a Mon monarch from the Tai ethnic group took control of most of Siam, forcing the declining Siam vassals to submit to Luo Hu. Later, the great power, which annexed the Sogutai Dynasty, moved its capital to Ayutthaya in 1350. Ming Dynasty sources call it Siam.
The Jambei River valley in the central part of present-day Sumatra was the center of the Mingbao dynasty established by the Malays in the 13th and 14th centuries. The Mongols called it Mariyuer or Mu Thorn Yu according to the lineage of the founder of the dynasty. The power of the dynasty reached the present-day Malay Peninsula in the north. In the second half of the 13th century, Siem forces moved south to compete with Mariyuer for the Malay Peninsula. After Mari Yu'er became a vassal to the Yuan Dynasty, she probably wanted to ask the Yuan Dynasty to intervene and mediate relations with Siam. Therefore, at the beginning of Emperor Yuanchengzong's accession to the throne, he ordered the Siamese state to "not hurt Mari Yu'er."
The state of Java, south of Mariyuer, was ruled by the New Koshari dynasty when it began to operate the South China Sea after the Yuan dynasty destroyed the Song Dynasty. The Javanese king, dissatisfied with the Yuan Dynasty's edict, sent the Yuan envoy back in 1289. In the winter of 29 AD, the Yuan army sailed from Quanzhou to the south of the sea and reached Java in the spring of the following year. At this time the new Koshari dynasty was fighting against its neighbor small state, and the king was killed.
The king's son-in-law, Tuhan Bijanye, falsely surrendered the Yuan army and asked the Yuan army to help him break the enemy. After the rebellion, Tuhan Bijaya turned against each other. The Yuan army suffered losses because they helped it attack and was forced to withdraw and return home. Tuhan Bi Jaya established the Ma Cho Pache dynasty, and in 1295 sent an envoy to reconcile with the Yuan Dynasty.
The connection between the Yuan Dynasty and the Burmese state mostly took the land route through Yunnan, so Mongolian-Burmese negotiations were slightly earlier than the Yuan court's edict to the countries of the South China Sea. In the early 1270s, the Yuan envoys arrived in Burma. Once he did not see the Burmese king, and once he was executed by the Burmese king for violating the precepts of Theravada Buddhism. In 1277, the Burmese state sent troops to invade the Golden Tooth tribe, which had fallen to the Yuan Dynasty on the Yunnan border. The garrison of Yuanyunnan Province broke through the Burmese army elephant array and chased it to Jiangtoucheng.
In the twentieth year of the Yuan Dynasty (1283), after four years of preparation after destroying the remnants of the Sichuan Song army and leveling the southwest, the Yuan Dynasty sent troops from Yunnan to conquer Burma. The Burmese king fled from the capital Bagan and made peace with the Yuan army in 1285. In 1287, the Burmese king was poisoned by his son on his way back to Bagan, and Burma was in civil unrest. The Yuan army, led by Yunnan Wang Hu Gechi, re-entered Burma and occupied the city of Bagan, but soon withdrew. The Bagan dynasty collapsed. The power of the aristocracy and Thai-speaking Shan everywhere expanded dramatically. From this time until the end of the 13th century, many of the Shan states from the king's side were subordinate to the Yuan dynasty.
At this time, the Bagan royal family still occupied the former capital and nearby areas, and paid tribute to the Yuan dynasty. In 1298, the Shan minister of northern Burma, Asanko, also conquered Bagan and killed the Bagan royal family. In the fourth year of Dade (1300), the Yuan soldiers marched against Asan Geye. Ashanke also took advantage of the Yuan's disobedience and bribed the Yuan general with heavy money to make him withdraw. The Yuan government was forced to acknowledge the fait accompli of the Ashankor brothers ruling the Burmese state.
The Battle of Burma in 1300 was the last aggressive military campaign of the Yuan Dynasty in Southeast Asian countries. In the Song and Yuan dynasties, the southern end of the Indian peninsula was called Ma Ba Er on the east coast and Ma Ba Er on the west bank. Ma Ba'er is relatively developed, especially the Julan city-state. In the sixteenth year of the Yuan Dynasty (1279), Yuan sent envoys to Zhaolan. Ma Ba'er and Mara Ba'er and many small city-states successively asked Yuantong to ask for envoys.
The Delhi dynasty of North India also established diplomatic relations with Yuan.
In the late Yuan period, he sent an envoy to the Delhi Dynasty to give gifts such as hundreds of male and female slaves, brocade silk, musk, swords and other gifts to Suduan, and asked Delhi Suduan to rebuild a destroyed Buddhist temple somewhere in India so that the people of the Yuan Dynasty could worship. According to Ibn Battuta, a famous traveler born in Port Tangier, he was in Delhi at the time and was appointed by the Delhi Arithmetic as the head of the mission to return to the Yuan Dynasty. Battuta lingered for several years on the way, and after arriving in Guangzhou, it seems that he did not go to Dadu to meet the Yuan emperor.
The knowledge of Africa among the people of the Yuan Dynasty increased compared to the previous generation. Some of the envoys sent by the Yuan court to buy rare birds and exotic beasts and various square things went to the land of Mu Bone Capital and Diao Ji'er. The wooden bones are now Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia; Diao Jier, now Tangier in Morocco, traveled from China to the sea, and it took three years to make a round trip.
Mongol military defeats in the Eurasian Far West and the South China Sea showed that even though its iron horse seemed far-reaching, it was still not enough to conquer the entire "world". Thus, the sphere of influence of Mongolia in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was actually divided into two parts. Some of them were directly within the territory of the Mongol regime, including the Yuan Dynasty, where the Great Khan was located, and the Chagatai, Wokuotai and Jurus of King Shuchi to the west of it, and the Ili Khanate established by Xu Liehu.
The other part is neighboring countries that have not joined Mongolia's territory, but are forced to "pay tribute" because of the Mongol military threat. The degree to which these countries are subordinate to Mongolia, or to which the same country is subservient to Mongolia at different times, varies greatly.
There are also some countries that are also unilaterally accepted by the Yuan Dynasty as a "tribute" system, but they are not at all within the Yuan sphere of influence. They sent Tongyuan only to maintain diplomatic contacts with Yuan. Qualitatively between the above two major parts, there are Goryeo in the east, the principalities of Zairosi in the west, and a number of small city-states located around the Ili Khanate in the southwest.
The relationship between domination and domination, formed by the active subordination of one party, is compared to the relationship between father and son. So Genghis Khan wanted to call Wang Khan "Khan Father". The relationship between the Yuan Dynasty and the subordinate states it submitted to was considered by the people of the time to be "although righteous and courtiers, happy as father and son", which is what it meant.
In contrast to the characteristics of the superiority implied by the father-son relationship, all members of the golden family, which are equal in blood, treat each other as brothers. In Mongolian, it is called "Ahta'er Diewu Dieer", and in the Yuan Dynasty Chinese it is translated as "Brother Every Brother". This means that they are all descendants of older brothers and brothers of the same father (referring to Genghis Khan). The relationship between the Yuan Dynasty and its northwestern kings, Woodruth, had this special relationship of "brothers and brothers" forged by the same noble bloodline. Yuan dynasty Chinese expressed it as a "zongfan" relationship. It should be noted, however, that it is still very different from the broad clan relationship established by the tributary system.
Theoretically, the "clan of the Great Khan" should include the respective Ulus of the two kings of the Eastern and Western Dynasties. The host kings were descendants of Genghis Khan's brothers. Their influence within the golden family was naturally inferior to that of Genghis Khan's sons and their descendants. Therefore, at the beginning of the partition, their power was not very large; The land that can be expanded east of the Mongolian steppe is not as vast as in the west, and it is under the pressure of the Great Khan.
Due to insufficient political and economic resources, the host king's Woodruth did not fully develop into a relatively independent regime. The situation of the kings of the Western Dao is very different. The process of independence of the khanates, which had begun since Genghis Khan's western expedition, was basically completed because of the war for the throne between Kublai Khan and Ali Buge. The relationship between the Yuan Dynasty and the Shuchi Woodruth and the Ili Khanate thus formed an important part of the Yuan Dynasty's foreign relations
During his lifetime, his Uluth fiefdom was roughly north of present-day Lake Balkash and the Aral Sea, east from the Shihe River of Yeer, west to the vast steppe of the Zaya Hei River, and as far south as the southwestern coast of the Aral Sea. After the eldest son's expedition, the southern Russian steppes west of the Zaya Black River and north of the present-day Black Sea, as well as the principalities of Zairos, fell under the control of King Shuchi.
Therefore, after the death of Shuchi, Badu, who succeeded him as Ulus Khan, moved the tent to the city of Sacai on the lower reaches of the Yitil River. Because it is located in the Jiucha steppe, it is known as the Kipchak Khanate. After the 15th century, Russian historical texts also called it the Golden Horde. The original fiefdom east of the Zaya Heihe River was ruled by Shuchi's eldest son and brother of Badu, Shu'erda, and became a fiefdom within a feudal state, historically known as the "White Horde Khanate".
His wife and the wife of his younger brother Tuo Lei are sisters, so the two queens have a good relationship. After the death of Guiyou Khan, Badu forcibly intervened as the king of Changzhi Zong, transferring the candidate of the Great Khan from the Wokuotai line to the Tuo Lei lineage, and Badu also gained special respect from the new Khan Meng Ge (the eldest son of Tuo Lei).
According to the records of Lubuluk, who visited Mongolia from the steppe road around this time, the Great Mongolia seems to have divided the west and east between Badu and Mengge, and the prestige and influence of Badu in the eastern part of the empire even exceeded the prestige of the Great Khan Meng Ge in the western half.
Although the Pingcha Khanate gained relatively independent status earlier, it still honored the Great Khan of the Yuan Dynasty as the nominal supreme authority of the Golden Family for a long time, and the Queen of Shuchi called himself "Khan" relative to the Great Khan until 1340. The coins of the Khanate had an inscription calling Ali Buge the Great Khan, indicating that they recognized Ali Buge as the fifth Great Khan of the Great Mongol State, and Kublai Khan could only be regarded as the sixth Great Khan after him.
At the beginning of 1260, an armed conflict broke out between the Tsacha Khanate and the Ili Khanate over the land south of the Taihe Ridge, tearing apart nearly half a century of close ties between the Shuchi and Tuolei lines. The Kipchak Khanate also sought support with the Mamluk Muslim dynasty of Egypt, an enemy of the Ili Khan. This event became one of the important symbols of the collapse of the Great Mongolia. In the following three or four decades, the alliance and confrontation between the Yuan Dynasty and the Pingcha Khanate, the Chagatai Khanate and the Wokotai Khanate underwent many reorganizations and changes according to factors such as territorial interests, strength and fluctuations, and changes in the political situation.
Among the most important events related to the country of the drinker,
The first was the 1269 Tal River Conference held at the initiative of Wang Haidu after Wokuotai. The queens of the Wokuotai and Muyi and Chagataiba lineages who participated in this congress reached an agreement to jointly oppose the Yuan Dynasty and the Ili Khanate of the Mine-Dragging Lineage. The Kipchak Khanate participated in this alliance for fourteen and five years.
Second, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, there were people in the Pingcha Khan family who competed for power, privately forged a nest and broadened the platform, and the king of Chagatai thought that Austria was aided, and Pingcha Khan cooperated with the Yuan army to attack the Second Khanate, and since then has been friendly with the Yuan Dynasty.
The third is the most talented member of the golden family in Central Asia, and after the death of Wang Haidu after Wokotai, the two khanates of Chagatai and Wokotai decided to make peace with Yuan. The Kipchak Khanate also participated in the peace treaty between the Mongol Khanates held in 1304.
At this time, the Yuan emperor resumed the canonization of Kipchak Khan in his capacity as Great Khan. In the first year (1308), Emperor Yuanwuzong sent an envoy to canonize Kipchak Khan, who had been on the throne for 18 years, as the "King of Ningsu". In 1313, Emperor Yuanrenzong sent envoys to canonize. The Jingshi Dian, compiled in 1330, called the Kipchak Khanate "a fief of Yuezuber (i.e. Yuejibe)".
In 1336, Yue sent people to the Yuan Dynasty to request support for his fiefdoms in China to subsidize the support of the military station. It can be seen that the eastbound road from the Yidile River valley opened up from the Wokuotai era was still maintained at this time. Therefore, a "Guide to Trade" circulated in Europe at that time said that there was a passage from Tana on the south bank of the Don River estuary to Ganzhou in the Yuan Dynasty.
During the reign of the Kipchak Khanate, Islam spread widely in the center of Kipchakate's rule. By the time his son Zanibe ascended the throne, he changed his title to Great Khan. Probably the Islamic faith has finally diluted their identity with the Golden Family. Shortly thereafter, the Kipchak Khanate declined.
The Ili Khanate was the latest to establish a state in the Western Province of Ulus. Its territory is bounded by the Aru River in the northeast, the Taihe Ridge in the northwest, the Persian Gulf in the south, and the Euphrates River in the west. The national capital has successively been in the contemptuous Ha, Taoli Temple, and Sundaniya.
The Ili Khanate maintained very close relations with the Yuan Dynasty for a long time. After Xu Lieqiu's death, the ministers of the kings of the Western Regions recommended his son Abaha to succeed him. Abaha replied: "Kublai Khan is a long branch. How could he succeed to the throne without his edict? Due to the urgency of state affairs, he later ascended the throne under the persuasion of the people, but when Kublai Khan's edict arrived, he solemnly held a second enthronement ceremony. Five years after the first accession to the throne.
A letter written by his son Arhun (following Ah Bahadi Tigudiel as Khan) to the King of France in 1289 was also stamped with this Chinese character. The letter begins: "Immortal Weather Force, Great Khan Fuyin, King Arhun Franc." "Same as the format of the set at the beginning of the official documents of the Yuan Dynasty.
The juxtaposition of "Great Khan" and Immortal Heaven shows that the Great Khan of the Central Ulus (i.e., the Yuan Dynasty) is still the highest authority respected by the royal family of Ili Khan. After Abaha , whenever the Ili Khan Dynasty encountered a crisis of succession to the throne, the contenders always listed his father's canonization as the most important basis for the legitimacy of his status. Those who seized the throne of the khan also always immediately asked the Yuan dynasty for canonization.
In 1295, Arhun raised his army and seized the Khanate of the Ili Khanate from his uncle Baidu. Before the army, "Ghazan Khan and all the aliens... The prayer "There is no other God but Allah" was read and they all became Islamists. Hopzan began to refer to himself as "Khan Khan" and "Servant of Allah." Although we still refer to the Ulus of Xulehu as the Ili Khanate, there has actually been no Ili Khan since Hezan. Hezan's letter to the King of France in 1302 bears the Chinese character seal "The Treasure of the Kingdom and the People": scholars speculate that this seal must also come from the Yuan Dynasty.
And in 1304, the successor to Hezan's throne, Duhe Khan, had a Chinese character seal with the inscription "Emperor Zhenmei and the Treasure of Shunwanyi". It seems somewhat difficult to understand that another "True Emperor" was given a seal by the emperor of the Yuan Dynasty. Could it be that this seal was carved by the Han who moved to the Ili Khanate for their "True Emperor" in the West?
In any case, Hezan and his successors still had frequent dealings with their "brothers and brothers" in the Yuan Dynasty. In 1298, Hezan sent an envoy to the Yuan Dynasty, and Emperor Yuan Chengzong ordered him to bring back the "New Year Gift" (the annual reward given by the Yuan royal family to the kings) received under Xu Lieyu's name over the years. In 1310, the Ili Khanate went to war with the Chagatai Khanate. The important minister of the Ili Khanate, Abishaha, visited the Yuan Dynasty around this time, and was likely to have the mission of discussing with the Yuan Dynasty to coordinate the war against the Chagatai Khanate.
When Abi Zhaoha returned to China, he was detained by the king of Chagatai. He accidentally leaked the secrets of the Yuan armament war, which caused the Chagatai Khanate army to cross the Amu Darya River and invade the territory of the Ili Khanate, and it was all by the Yuan army launching an attack from the eastern front that forced the Chagatai Khanate army to withdraw from the south bank of the Amu Darya River. After the son of the complete capital, Bu Saiin, ascended the throne, he went out to petition the Yuan dynasty for the title of Quan Chen. Emperor Taiding sent an envoy to give the official title of "Kaifu Yi Tong Sansi and Yiguo Gong", and gave silver seals and gold talismans.
In Iran during the Ili Khanate dynasty, there was extensive exchange between Chinese and Persian cultures. In the early 1290s, the Ili Khanate imitated the banknote law of the Yuan Dynasty, banned metal currency nationwide, and forced paper printing money. The banknote is rectangular in shape and also has eight Chinese characters printed on it. The banknote law was only implemented for a very short time, and it was forced to cancel due to the paralysis of the market. The word "banknote" in Persian still retains the pronunciation of the Chinese character "banknote".
Rassite, who was instructed to compile the Histories during his reign, received important help from Prime Minister Polo, an official of the Yuan Dynasty who had sent to the Ili Khan dynasty and stayed there, in understanding the history of Mongolia.
Lassite's Collected Histories also records the chronology of Chinese dynasties up to the Southern Song Dynasty. The Chinese medical masterpiece "Pulse Sutra" (by Wang Shuhe) was also translated into Persian under the auspices of Lassiter. The Mongol post system and the Yuan dynasty's method of rectifying post stations were imitated by the Ili Khanate.
The system of issuing tablets to civil and military officials as proof of identity and power, and issuing cards as a certificate of riding in the Yuan Dynasty, was also introduced to Iran. The word "brand" (paiza) is still preserved in Persian. According to the Mongol system, Ili Khan organized the "Cowardly Xue" who took turns as his bodyguard. The word "cowardly" thus entered the Persian language, and to this day it still means "shift" and "duty."
During Genghis Khan's lifetime, both the Wokotai and Chagatai Urus were sealed in the meadows between the present-day Altai Mountains and the Tian Shan. In the struggle to transfer the Khan's throne to the Thunder lineage, the kings of the Wokuotai clan were severely suppressed, their shares were cut apart, and their power declined greatly. The king of Chagatai, because of the convenience of Naizu's departure from the western regions of the town, gradually expanded his power to the oasis cities west of the Tianshan Mountains to the north of the Amu Darya River; According to the old Mongolian system, the land of the agricultural city was supposed to be the common property of the golden family under the control of the Great Khan.
In early 1260, Kublai Khan, in order to win the support of the kings of the Western Provinces, handed over the land west of the Altai Mountains up to the Amu Darya River to the rule of the Chagatai queen, marking the official recognition by the Great Khan of the Chagatai queen's de facto control of the region. However, at this time, the Fearful region and the towns in present-day southern Xinjiang had not yet been occupied by the Chagatai Khanate.
However, the power of the Chagatai Khanate was immediately challenged by the rapid rise of Wokotai in 1260. This illustrious steppe knight was one of the few Mongol kings who did not drink alcohol. He gathered the kings of the Wokotai lineage, took advantage of the changing situation at the time, incorporated a large area of the steppe east of the Syr Darya into his sphere of influence, and thus provoked the Chagatai Khanate.
In 1269, Haidu Yochagatai Empress King Bajiao and Kipchak Khan Timur held a three-series khuritai in the Tar Thornsi River to jointly oppose Kublai Khan and the Ili Khan dynasty. The Congress of Tarthorn marked the formal departure of the queens of Vokuotai and Chagatai from the political control of the Great Khan. Because there was not enough pasture in the river, the eight thorns attacked the Ili Khanate over the Amu Darya River with the support of Haidu, but the army was defeated and died soon after. The Chagatai Khanate actually became a vassal under the orders of Haidu.
From 1270 until the beginning of the 14th century, the Yuan Dynasty fought repeatedly with the Wokuotai and Chagatai Khanates, led by Haidu, for the Wokuotai and Chagatai Khanates over the border cities along the Tarim Basin to the west. In order to contain the Yuan Dynasty's military operations north and south of the Tianshan Mountains, Haidu repeatedly invaded Lingbei (i.e., the Mongolian steppe), using this strategy to force the Yuan army to shrink its western front. In 1290, the Yuan Dynasty was forced to move the Qiu'er royal family to Yongchang, Gansu.
At the turn of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Yuan army withdrew from the region west of Qiu'er. Huozhou became a border city in the eastern border of the Chagatai Khanate. In 1301, Haidu led two armies to fight the Yuan dynasty in the ancient land of Thejian in the Altai Mountains, severely damaging the Yuan army. But shortly thereafter, he died of illness.
The situation in Central Asia has undergone three major changes. First, the queen of Chagatai, supported by Haidu, took the opportunity to sit up after Haidu's death. The balance of power between the two khanates began to reverse. Second, the two khanates changed their positions against the Yuan and made peace with the Yuan dynasty on the condition that the Yuan dynasty recognize their vested interests in the northwest region and the legitimacy of its regime.
In 1304, the covenant and realized. The three parties jointly proclaimed peace to the Ilkhanate. This news also spread to European Christendom through the Ilkhanate. Third, the Yuan Dynasty feared the Haidu Yuwei, and took advantage of the discord between the Chagatai queen and the wokotai queen, and helped the Chagatai Khanate weaken the wokotai khanate. At the end of the fourteenth century, the kings of the Wokuotai clan launched a brief revival but failed. Soon, the Wokotai Khanate collapsed.
In early 1310, the Chagatai Khanate sent an envoy to the Yuan Dynasty. Soon after, however, a dispute broke out between the two sides over the division of the Wokotai pasture land in the border area. War in the northwest resumed. At this time, the Ili Khanate also took action to drive the Chagatai army that had crossed the Amu Darya River south and invaded back into the river, thus forming a situation in which the east and west attacked the Chagatai Khanate. The Chagatai army again invaded the territory of Ili Khan, and later withdrew under the military pressure of the Yuan army on the eastern front. Taking advantage of this offensive, the Yuan Dynasty re-advanced its defensive line into the Fearful Dynasty area, but it was not long before it retreated.
In 1330, Duwa's son Tarmazari succeeded him as Chagatai Khan. The Khan, who had a Sanskrit name, abandoned his Buddhist faith and converted to Islam. From 1330 to 1340, the authority of the Chagatai king declined, the khanate gradually became divided, and the Central Asian Mongols also accelerated the rhythm of integrating the local Turkic-speaking majority peoples in the process.