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introduction
At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, "taking over the evils of Qin", the country was poor and the people were poor, and a policy of resting with the people was adopted. Emperor Wen of Han ascended the throne, "so that the county country has no offering." Benefit the world, princes, four Yi, near and far rejoice." By the time of Emperor Wudi of Han, the method of pushing grace and appendage was adopted to solve the problem of princes threatening the imperial court, and coupled with the influence of Emperor Wudi of Han under the influence of the Spring and Autumn Ram Science "great unification" idea, he opened up his territory, and the core of the tributary system turned from the inside to the outside.
The tributary system began in the Western Zhou Dynasty, was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed in the Wei and Jin dynasties, perfected in the Tang and Song dynasties, and was completed in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and finally dissolved. This system lasted for nearly 2,000 years and had a profound impact on the political, economic, cultural and customs aspects of ancient China and neighboring countries or regimes. The Han Dynasty reigned for more than 400 years, and the tributary system had a new development at this time. There were many countries and nationalities around the Han Dynasty, and as the strength of all parties declined, and with the correctness of the empire's foreign and ethnic policies, this system appeared unstable.
The Han Dynasty emperor's concept of "great unification" of integrating Huayi and Yi gradually became the concept of "defense against the summer of Yixia" with the change of the tributary system. During the Two Han Dynasty, vassal states or foreign envoys entered the pilgrimage to meet the monarch and contribute goods, and in this way, a tributary system centered on the Han Dynasty was formed. Studying the evolution of the tributary system in the Han Dynasty can understand what kind of relationship the Han Dynasty had with neighboring countries or regimes and with the ethnic minorities within its territory, and how the two sides influenced and interacted with each other.
1. The Xiongnu from "not subject" to "called subject": the tributary system under the exclusive respect of the Western Han Empire
At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, the world was first decided, the country was tired, and there were many internal problems, and the kings and generals often turned against the Han to surrender the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han Empire did not yet have the strength to compete with the Xiongnu in the north. Due to this poor economic base, the Han court had to temporarily compromise with the Xiongnu, and since the Xiongnu had already captured Henan at that time, they were a great threat to Chang'an, the capital of the Han Empire, and often invaded and plundered the livestock of the people in the border counties of the Han Empire, and the Han Empire could only defend to expel them back to the Xiongnu territory.
The states of the Western Regions were also an important support for the Han Empire and the Xiongnu to fight against each other in their own camp, the tributary system. At the time of the Hongtun Shan Yu, "everyone thought that they were Xiongnu", that is, they began to submit to the Xiongnu, contributing taxes and goods to provide for the Xiongnu. In the more than 60 years since he controlled the Western Regions, the Western Regions submitted to the Xiongnu. The servants and servants were the Xiongnu, who ruled the 36 kingdoms in the northern and southern regions of the Western Regions.
From the beginning of the Han Dynasty to the accession of Emperor Wudi of Han, the eastern world at this time coexisted with two tributary systems. Although Han and Hun are nominally brotherly countries, because the Han court was short-lived and pro-Nagong to the Xiongnu, the essence is the tributary system of Han and Hun under the Xiongnu's monopoly. Such a juxtaposition pattern is unbearable for "Huaxia". Breaking this pattern has become an imperative development trend.
After Emperor Wudi of Han came to the throne, he decided to abolish the pattern of Huayi and respect, so he changed his previous life and family policy, and began a decades-long conquest with the Xiongnu. After the battles of Henan, Hexi and Mobei, the Xiongnu state was declining. In the third year of Lu (51 BC), the Southern Xiongnu called Han Xidan in the first month of the Han Dynasty. At this point, the Xiongnu became a vassal of the Han Empire, and the Han court treated it as a courtesy and throne on the princes. The tributary system of the Han Empire eventually changed from coexistence with the Xiongnu to the exclusive dignity of the Han Empire.
When the Han Empire expanded its tributary system in the Western Regions, it had to solve several problems. In addition to weakening and eradicating the influence of its archrival the Xiongnu Empire on the Western Regions states, he established a tax service to make the Western Regions official institutions, replace the servants and servants set up by the Xiongnu, and how to establish a logistics base to manage the Western Regions for the Han court. The Han court's control of the Western Regions went through a process of contention between itself and the Xiongnu, the rivalry between the countries of the Western Regions and the Xiongnu, and finally the establishment of the Western Regions Protectorate, and was able to completely control the Western Regions.
The reason why the Han Empire was able to control the Western Regions was first, because the empire was strong, and the army had been in rejuvenation for more than 30 years, and it had been constantly conquering; Then it depends on the division within the Xiongnu, and the surrender of the king day by day. The Xiongnu lost their right arm, and their power in the Western Regions weakened, and the servants of the Western Regions were also deposed. The Han Empire then set up a Western Regions capital in the Western Regions, "to pacify the countries, to destroy Huaijizhi, and the Han command to the Western Regions."
Second, the concept of "the Son of Ancient Heaven guards the four Yi" of "the inner summer and the outer Yidi"
Emperor Wudi of Han "had far-reaching feelings and was in all directions", and "Conquer the four Yi and Guangweide". The idea of inaction in the early Han Dynasty could no longer adapt to the development of the Han Empire. The Xiongnu invaded the border for many years, and the Han court often suffered from it, although it was difficult to prevent him from invading and plundering the border with his relatives. Therefore, the idea of "great unification" was put forward by all thinkers. The Han court changed the status quo of the "barbarian and cunning summer" through the construction of political, military, economic and trade systems, prepared for the construction of a tributary system centered on "Huaxia", and spread the weed of the Son of Heaven far and wide.
What really influenced Emperor Wudi of Han to open up his territory was the Spring and Autumn Ram Studies, which emerged at this time and best represented the idea of great unification. The Spring and Autumn Left Legend and the Spring and Autumn Ram Legend are records of important political, diplomatic and military events in various countries during the Warring States period. "The Legend of the Left" is detailed in the chronicle, while the "Legend of the Ram" is detailed in political theory. Both have the same view on the relationship between "king" and "Yidi" in the Spring and Autumn period.
The explanation of "Tianxia" in the "Legend of the Ram in Spring and Autumn" put forward the theory of great unification and inspired the emperors to exert their power. In China, that is, when China was strong, the ideas of "great unification" and "no king" played a positive role. Emperor Wudi of Han adhered to the pioneering spirit of "the Son of Heaven of the Ancients, Guarding the Four Yis", and finally the tributary system painstakingly built by the Han Empire was expanded, so that the Four Yi and foreign countries were among them.
Dong Zhongshu advocated restraint rather than conquest for Yi Di, and Yi Di was greedy for Han property, so he could attract it with gold. However, based on the Xiongnu's actions towards the Han Empire during Emperor Wudi of Han, Ban Gu believed that Yi Difei could not be provoked, and his proposition was the same as that of Han Anguo, both of which believed that "non-power cannot be controlled". However, Han Anguo was at a time when Emperor Wu was determined to conquer Yidi, when the Han court was strong. In the later period of Emperor Wu, the country was poor and had to rest and recuperate with the people, so Dong Zhongshu's policy was inherited by many ministers of the Han court.
In order to build a tributary system that stretches thousands of miles, the Han Empire expanded its cavalry, repaired horse administration, and wanted to establish a mobile army that could take the initiative and traverse the desert north; It also built border military projects such as barriers and beacons to stabilize the border. In this way, it was possible to send troops to conquer and pacify the kingdoms to build a tributary system.
The tributary system built by the Han Empire is divided into two levels: the first layer is the inner layer, that is, the vassal state of the Han Empire, the Han court is its suzerainty, has the right of jurisdiction, is the substantive clan relationship, and the Han Empire is politically and culturally and economically influential; The second layer is the outer layer, that is, the foreign power equal to the strength and status of the Han Empire, and the Han court is only recruited as a foreign minister, wanting to make the son of the Han Empire "holy virtue fill the heavens and earth, and the light is covered by four tables", which is called the Zong Domain, which is actually an equal "international" relationship.
When Emperor Wudi of Han came to the throne, he inherited a rich situation of the fifth emperor Chengping, although the national strength was strong at this time, but after the beginning of the "conquest", the original economic income could no longer meet the expenses of the imperial court, especially the military expenditure. As a result, the new economic policies of salt and iron monopoly, liquor and arithmetic began to be implemented, and border trade and tributary trade were also developed to solve financial difficulties, providing a solid economic foundation for the Han Empire to build a tributary system.
Japanese scholar Toshio Matsuda argues that "the foreign 'tribute' contained in the Chinese history books and the corresponding 'return' of the imperial court are obviously an official trade. "But the tributary system is more about the Han Dynasty's military and political deterrent and control of foreign countries." The tributary system included political dependence, military deterrence, cultural admiration, and commercial trade. However, the essential construction of the tributary system depended on the political and military strength of the Han Empire, and the tributary trade only played an auxiliary role.
Third, the collapse of the tributary system: Wang Mang changed the old Han law, and the countries paid no tribute
Wang Mang usurped the Han Empire and inherited the tributary system of the Han Empire. When the Han Dynasty was not dead, the Han court could also use Emperor Xuan and Emperor Yuan's kindness to the Xiongnu to appease the Xiongnu and make them guard the responsibility of vassals. After Wang Mang built a new state, he changed the policy of treating the Xiongnu during the Han Dynasty, lost the heart of the Xiongnu, and appeased him improperly, and the Xiongnu had the heart of traitor. In the second year of Tianfeng, Wang Mang did not listen to Yan You's strategy, but wanted to send troops to attack Shan Yu. Because it was difficult for the soldiers to assemble, they were unable to send troops. Shan Yu heard of it, so he invaded the north, and the northern relations of the Han Dynasty broke down.
The Xiongnu led cavalry to attack the north of the new dynasty, and the countries of the Western Regions also chose to betray the new dynasty. Due to his geographical proximity to the Xiongnu, Yanqi took the lead in betraying the Han Dynasty and killed the Western Regions Duhu. The new emperor Mang wanted to conquest, but because the Han army could not assemble, he gave up. The tributary system built by the Han Empire in the Western Regions was in danger of collapse, and "the Western Regions also collapsed."
After Wang Mang became emperor, the ethnic policy formulated was wrong from a historical point of view, so that the Xiongnu betrayed the new dynasty. The first is to change the seal into a chapter; The second is to change the name of the Xiongnu to Gongnu, and call Shan Yu good. Wang Mang coerced Xu Bu to Chang'an and made him Xu Bu Shan Yu, and he wanted to send troops to assist Xu Bu as Shan Yu. When the Xiongnu learned of this, they "became more and more angry and merged into the north, and the north was corrupted." At this time, the Xiongnu finally broke away from the tributary system built by the Han Empire, no longer paid tribute to the new dynasty, and became an enemy country.
In addition to adopting a wrong policy towards the Xiongnu, on the side of the Western Regions, Wang Mang "changed his king to a marquis", and belittled both the kingdom of Jumachi and Goguryeo as a marquis. King Jumachi then resented the new dynasty. The Great Yin of the Mouqi Dynasty fraudulently killed the king of Jumachi, and his brother rebelled against Xin. Wang Mang failed to win the two attacks with troops, and the wrong policy he implemented did not contribute to the stability of the new regime, but repeatedly betrayed the former Han states, resulting in the collapse of the Western Han tributary system.
In order not to collapse the tributary system, Wang Mang set up the Pig Tuyan Brave Army and the Li Army in the military field to attack the Xiongnu, and ordered hundreds of officials to raise horses, and "worshiped the twelve generals, sent the warriors of the county country and the elite soldiers of the arsenal, each of which had its own garrison, and transferred the commission to the side." 300,000 people, 300 days of ration, and ten at the same time." However, Wang Mangtun's troops were outside, and he was unable to manage the Xiongnu with a thunderous strike, and he stayed outside for a long time, but did not pacify it, and ultimately did not play a role in maintaining the stability of the tributary system, and spent the resources of the national treasury in vain.
During the more than 50 years from Emperor Xuan to Emperor Ping, the Han court developed the country's economy due to peace on the border and almost no war. The new dynasty inherited the richness of the Han Empire and the treasury was full. However, with the implementation of Wang Mang's various economic policies, the state finances fell into chaos, and later taxes were added to maintain the stability of the tributary system. In the third year of the emperor's reign, reforms failed as Wang Mang abolished various economic policies, and the tributary system collapsed with the combined effect of political, military, and economic factors.
epilogue
The tributary system is an extension of the content and form of the five-service system in the Zhou Dynasty, the practice of the ideal world view in the pre-Qin period, and a way to handle relations with neighboring countries. When ancient China was strong in its own national strength, it used "no outside the king" as the theoretical basis for building a tributary system and expanding. However, when the country's strength was in decline, it used "the inner summer and the outer summer" as an excuse to implement the policy of restraint.
The Western Han Empire not only used military threats to intimidate the vassal states, but also lured foreign countries to pay tribute to the Han Dynasty with gold and wealth. The Western Han Empire treated the kingdoms according to the criterion of "their contribution to righteousness, followed by courtesy and endless restraint", and the tributary states could obtain both political support and economic benefits, and in the case of the Han, they could also "spread the land for thousands of miles, heavy nine translations, and make special customs, and the virtue was spread all over the world". This is a win-win for the kingdoms and the Han Dynasty.
The tributary system established by the Western Han Dynasty was expanded and extended by inheriting the five services of the Zhou Dynasty, creating a unique tributary system belonging to the Western Han Dynasty, and the subsequent Eastern Han Dynasty, Sui, Tang, Ming and Qing dynasties were all influenced by the tributary system built by the Western Han Empire, and the tributary system was continuously supplemented and improved. The tributary system built by the Western Han Empire has gained and lost over the past two thousand years.
The evolution of the tributary system was based on the political, military, economic and cultural development of ancient China, attracting countries as vassals and making them pay tribute. The tributary system built by the Western Han Empire had a far-reaching impact on subsequent dynasties, in order to inspire successive emperors to take the idea of "great unification" as the guide, to open up the territory with the spirit of "no outside the king", and strive to build a tributary system with a vast land and four subordinates.
Bibliography:
[1] Sima Qian. "Chronicle".
[2] Bangu. Book of Han.
[3] FAN Ye. Book of the Later Han.
[4] He Xiu's note. "Spring and Autumn Ram Biography".