At the Battle of Liza in 1866, the superior Italian navy was still defeated by the Austrian Imperial Navy, which greatly stimulated the development of the Italian navy
Design & Build
By the early 1870s, the newly unified Italian Navy had a number of humble ironclad ships, many of which were built by foreign shipyards. This changed in 1873, when construction began on the ironclad ships Durio and Dandolo. Designed by the illustrious shipbuilder Benedetto Brin, they were revolutionary, built and launched in the early 1880s. They installed four 100-ton (450 mm) guns on two turrets, lined up in echelons in a central armored fort protected by thick steel armor. However, there are no waterline armor belts at the front and rear of the panzer fort; The stability and buoyancy of the ship are protected by a 51 mm armored deck below the waterline and a honeycomb small watertight cabin above.
Schematic diagram of Durio-level defense and layout
The two ironclad ships had no sails and only a mast, but the strong power allowed the ship to reach a speed of 15 knots, 1-2 knots faster than the foreign ironclad ships of the same era. By any measure, they are remarkable achievements. Brin had an important ally, Admiral Simon Antonio Pacrete de Saint Bon, who was appointed Minister of the Navy in July 1873. Saint-Bon's ambitious naval plans won the support of Parliament, and his political acumen, combined with Brin's genius, led to a more radical Italian-class ironclad.
In the 1894 ironclad dandolo, the main gun had been replaced by 254mm
When the Admiralty announced plans to build the two giant ironclad ships, there was a strong voice of opposition in Parliament, many of whom favored the construction of small fast torpedo ships. However, they believed that these new ships would not only strengthen the fleet, but also support Italy's political position and colonial ambitions in Europe.
The overall concept of the new ironclad design belonged to The Holy State, who wanted a ship that was "long-range, fast and powerful". These are common features of the Dourio class, but what sets the "Italian" class apart is the fourth requirement: the ability to transport large numbers of troops to any attacked location along the 3,940-mile (6,340 km) coastline of the Kingdom of Italy. This stems from the Law of the Sea of July 1, 1877, which stipulates that the fleet is the main force in preventing attacks at sea.
The original design outline for the Italian class was drafted by Brin himself in 1875. Initially, the main armament of the Italian class was two 100-ton guns (i.e. 450 mm main guns of the same type of Doulio class), located in two armored rotating turrets with vertical side armor of 450 mm. Such thickness is considered the most powerful weapon sufficient to counter foreign fleets. By 1877 at the latest, the main guns had been increased to 4 100-ton guns. In 1878, two years after the ship's construction, it decided to install the latest heavy gun, the 431 mm Armstrong breech gun. Italian designers also decided to abandon closed turrets and instead rely on open turrets located in the central armored fort for protection, where the guns could be fired above the chest wall. This reduced weight and became a key factor in allowing for the addition of dry ships and the insertion of a complete deck, which in turn provided space to transport a full infantry division of about 10,000 troops.
Original design scheme for the Italian level
Obviously, any ship with these characteristics would be enormous, and Admiral San Pont's need for this unprecedented speed of 18 knots further expanded its size. Both strategic and tactical considerations play a role in this need. At the strategic level, the main force of the Italian fleet was only a few modern warships, and it was necessary to be able to concentrate its forces as quickly as possible at any point on the Italian coastline.
However, the most fundamental feature of the Italian class is the complete absence of waterline armor. Brin knew from the earliest stages of the design work that if he wanted to keep the ship's dimensions within realistic bounds, then a broad waterline belt armor. Even a limited armor belt like the one he used in the Doulio class was impossible.
This is a better advantage than armor, and no armor is better than having armor that can be broken, because the fragments of armor itself can also cause damage. These considerations led Brin to abandon waterline armor altogether. Instead, the italian-class critical facilities will be protected by a continuous underwater armored deck from the bow to the stern, while the flood from any waterline impact will be insulated by cofferdams, divisions and coal bunkers. Vertical armor will be limited to other critical areas protecting the main gun and the ship.
Despite the abandonment of waterline armor, as the design evolved from early concepts to actual construction and displacement rose. There are changes in the thickness and quality of both the heavy armor plates and the auxiliary weapons; After the ship was launched, the original two light masts were replaced by a military mast in the middle of the ship, and a huge crane was added.
Foreign companies provided most of the equipment for the class. The armor of the Italia was made by the British company, while the armor of her sister ship Lepanto came from France. Many auxiliary equipment is also manufactured abroad.
In 1875, the Italian was assigned to the Royal Dockyard Fort Stabia, located in the Bay of Naples, and in October 1876, the Lepanto was built at a private shipyard, orlando Shipyard. The ship sparked a heated debate in Parliament, with some arguing that the ship should be built by a state-owned shipyard. Saint State defended the order, saying the decision would avoid major delays as state facilities were already overloaded for the maintenance and modernization of other vessels.
On September 29, 1880, before being launched, the Italian number. Its sheer hull can be felt dwarfing the visiting Royal Navy capital ships in the bay
On 29 September 1880, in the presence of King Umberto I, cabinet ministers, senators, parliamentarians, foreign missions and fifty thousand spectators, the Italia "slides majestically and calmly into the sea, which will defend the motherland, named after it" in its glorious name. After launching, the hull was first towed to the opposite shore of the Gulf of Naples, where its engine and boiler were installed. It was then transported 350 miles away to La Spezia, where armor and artillery were installed, a process that took 5 years. After 4 1/2 years of platform construction and 5 years of outfitting, the Italian entered service with the fleet in October 1886.
Construction of the Lepanto began 10 months after the official opening of the Orlando Shipyard. The launch of the hull was another celebration on 17 March 1883: the invitees included the king and queen, the heir to the throne, the prince, and the British ambassador.
The Lepanto, which is undergoing a launch ceremony
The ship took six and a half years to build (October 1876 to March 1883) and another four and a half years to outfit. In August 1887, she officially joined the fleet. The official figures given on the cost of building the two ships (excluding additional expenditures on the reorganization of weapons, refits, etc.) are: the Italian 29191874 lira, the Lepanto 28772481 the lira.
Basic structural layout
Basic structure data at the Italian level
Italian-level displacement tonnage weights
Both the Italia and the Lepanto were built of steel and could save 15% of their weight compared to comparable iron-hulled ships. The double-layered base plate covers the entire length of the ammunition depot and mechanical space, i.e. 77.55 meters. The bottom depth of the double deck in the middle section is 1.0 meters. The mechanical layout followed the same pattern as that of the Doulio class: the engine room was located in the middle of the ship, and the boiler room was located in front and behind the ship— an arrangement that was repeated on later Italian battleships and cruisers. The advantage of this is that it ensures that the boiler will not stop functioning due to a catastrophic blow, but it also requires a longer drive shaft, increasing the height of the boiler in the rear fuel tank so that the drive shaft can be unobstructed underneath. The end result is an increase in weight of 120-150 tons.
Structurally, the hull uses a longitudinal system different from the Bollinger-designed Dorio class. In fact, the Italian class was the first example of the Italian preference for longitudinal hull structures, a system that was adopted on all later large ships.
Schematic of the side planing structure
The bottom of the ship consists of 15 main transverse bulkheads and two longitudinal side bulkheads, extending from the outer bottom to the protective deck, forming 51 watertight cabins. In addition, four engine compartments (two on the starboard side and two on the starboard side) are separated by a centerline bulkhead. The hull of the double-decker bottom is subdivided into 18 compartments at the front and rear. As a result, there are 69 watertight cabins under the protective deck and another 84 at the bottom of the double deck.
Schematic diagram of the bottom structure of the ship
Schematic of the armored deck structure
Schematic of the upper deck structure
Schematic diagram of the superstructure and flybridge
The stem is forged of steel and at the end is a gate that extends 2.0 meters. It is supported by vertical bulkheads and armored decks on the midline, which bend to the bottom of the hammer. The underwater hull of the Italia was covered with a layer of wood covered with zinc plates to prevent rusting, while the underwater hull of the Lepanto was not covered. The ship had a very high dry port, which provided the space needed to transport a full infantry division (10,000 men).
The superstructure is the smallest. The most prominent features are the commander tower and the separate tubular mast, the base of which acts as a support for the crane boom. The Italia had a counterweight for a large ship crane, while Lepanto did not. During Italian repairs in 1905-06, the bulky mast was removed and replaced by two light and short masts according to the original design.
There is a narrow flybridge on the upper deck from the front chimney to the rear chimney. This height allowed the guns to rotate under it, even though their maximum height had a cab at the front of the bridge.
The steering arrangement is unusual. The rudder head is located 2.0 meters below the waterline outside the hull, and the cross-shaped rudder head rotates through the packing box inside the shell with two pistons. Inside the hull, the pistons are connected by another crosshead. The gears of the Italian are steam-driven, while the Lepanto is hydraulic; Both modes have manual backups.
Armament
Basic data on Italian-grade weapons and equipment
In February 1875, the famous Italian artillery general Rossett believed that a 431 mm gun with the same weight as the 450 mm gun of the Dourio could be made with a longer barrel. Together with the new launcher, the gun can significantly increase the initial velocity of the shell, thereby increasing its armor piercing rate efficiency. Rosset's proposal was not initially adopted, and the Naval Department ordered four breech-loading 450 mm guns from Armstrong for the Italian and Lepanto. However, in 1878, the British government intercepted the guns out of panic over the Russo-Anglo-Russian War and deployed them in Gibraltar and Malta. The Italians were not outraged by it, as Armstrong had already reported that they were developing a more powerful 431mm breech gun, as Roussett outlined. Construction of the new ship had only just begun, and Armstrong promised a counterweight of 100 tons during construction, so the Italians decided to adopt a new main gun.
The 450mm gun that was originally intended to be used had a complex loading the gun that had to be turned to the specified position and then lowered the muzzle and pushed the shell into the bore using a hydraulic pusher
Rosseter's predictions were confirmed on the 431 mm guns: although they were smaller in caliber, they were indeed more powerful than the 450 mm guns. The 450 mm 20 caliber gun fired a 907 kg shell with an initial velocity of 472 m/s, while the new 431 mm 26 caliber gun fired a shell of the same weight with an initial velocity of up to 600 m/s. The new gun was a breech loader, which greatly simplified the loading procedure.
1887 431 mm gun on the starboard side of the Lepanto The 30 mm protective deck at the top of the turret is evident on the flybridge with the 37 mm Hodgkis rotary gun visible
In 1881, an improved model appeared, the 431 mm 27 caliber gun, which was made entirely of steel, which was a more powerful weapon. For unknown reasons, the Italia was armed with three 431 mm L26 and one 431 mm L27 gun. Considering the short combat distances of that era, different trajectories would have little effect. Lepanto had four uniform 27 caliber guns.
The 431 mm gun was installed under the command of George W. Bush of Armstrong. Designed under the direction of W. Lendl, he applied for a patent in December 1878. The gun had no trunnions, but had six protruding ridges on the receiver that matched the corresponding grooves in the bracket, preventing any movement of the barrel, while three metal straps fixed the barrel to the bracket. The hydraulic compressor absorbs recoil. The maximum elevation angle of the gun is +15 degrees, and the maximum pitch angle is -10 degrees. The barrel of the Italian-class main gun is about 10 meters above sea level, so even if it is close to 55 meters, the waterline of the enemy ship is still vulnerable to attack, while shelling land targets. Battleships can hit a fortress at an altitude of 450 meters from a distance of 3000 meters.
Schematic of the loading of the 431mm main gun, the loading process is carried out entirely within the turret
The two turrets were arranged in echelons, allowing for rotation on the other side of the ship to fire about 45 degrees. The artillery was loaded in a fixed position. Projectiles and charges are pushed into the breech by telescopic ramming hammers. The rate of fire is set to fire every 8 minutes. The Italian was stocked with 45 rounds per gun. Lepanto was 40 rounds.
By design, the secondary armament of Italy and Lepanto consisted of 18 149 mm 26-caliber Armstrong guns. 12 are on the main deck, 6 on each side, the other 4 on the upper deck, along the sides of the chest wall, and the last two doors are also on the upper deck, on the midline of the bow and stern. When completed, however, the secondary gun emplacements of the two ships differed from the original plan. When it entered service, it had only eight 149 mm guns, two on the upper deck (one on the right front and the other on the stern) and three on either side of the main deck (two in front of the multi-sided fort and one in the stern). The Lepanto had eight 152 mm/32 caliber guns. The guns on the upper deck had shields, but the guns on the main deck were only protected by steel plates on the hull.
While the main armament of both ships remained unchanged throughout their service life, the secondary and light gun emplacements of both ships were altered and replenished over time.
At some point, the 149 mm gun of the Italian class was converted into a rapid-fire gun. The 120 mm rapid-fire guns of both ships were located on the upper deck, two on the starboard side and two on the starboard quarter. Two 57 mm guns were installed on the main deck of each of the batteries under the multi-sided fort and two in the stern corridor. In addition to this, some small 37mm rapid-fire guns were installed. The two ships also carried two Army-style 75 mm mountain guns and two machine guns for use by the landing forces.
The Italian was followed by the addition of two more 120 mm guns, two on the upper deck on the starboard forward, the other two on the starboard stern, as can be seen in this photo
Lepanto, recently commissioned in Genoa, 17 August 1887. The 57 mm guns on the stern aisle were barely recognizable.
The torpedo armament of both ships consisted of four 355.6 mm water side torpedo tubes. After modernization in 1900-08, the Italia was converted to six torpedo tubes. In 1911, the torpedo tube of the Lepanto was dismantled. The Italia carried two Class II torpedo boats, while Lepanto carried three vigilance boats.
Lepanto 1892. A pair of 431 mm naval guns on the starboard side were almost directly aimed at the camera.
Armor protection system
Basic data on Italian-grade armor protection
Italia and Lepanto did not have the same deck protection, and iterateo had a 102 mm steel deck in the middle of the ship, which probably extended from the front to the boiler room at the back; The deck was thinned to 76 mm. The entire deck of the Lepanto, on the other hand, was a uniform 3-inch steel deck. Armor is laid on the deck.
The armored deck horizontally divides the hull into the lower half, including machinery, magazines, steering gears, etc., and the upper half, which houses the crew quarters, coal bunkers, and warehouses. The top of the deck is about 0.9 meters below the waterline, and on both sides of the middle of the boat it curves about 1.95 meters below the waterline. At the bow, it supports the hammer downwards.
Heavy artillery of that era fired very slowly, firing shells that were usually solid shells, as explosive shells could not penetrate heavy armor. As a result, the designs of Italia and Lepanto took advantage of a number of structural properties to protect their buoyancy and stability against the relatively rare impact of such shells. On each side of the hull above the armored deck there are two cofferdams, formed by longitudinal bulkheads and extending about 1.5 meters above the waterline. The outer weir, located a few feet to the side of the outer hull, was filled with cork, which was intended to limit flooding when the hull was broken at the waterline. The internal cofferdam is 0.9 meters wide, subdivided by a partition and can be accessed from above through a manhole; The holes in the outer weirs can be plugged with hammocks or similar materials to the inner cofferdam.
Between the internal cofferdams that run through the entire width of the ship is a honeycomb layer, topped by a flat, unarmored deck. This space is further divided by an intermediate deck horizontally about 0.4 meters above the waterline. The upper half was subdivided into 154 sealed compartments, while the lower half was subdivided into 188 coal-filled compartments, which would limit the amount of water that could be flooded if the hull was damaged.
The difference between the two ships is the armor plate for vertical protection. By the late 1870s, wrought iron was no longer effective against increasingly powerful artillery and hardened shells. All-steel plate is an option, but although it is harder than wrought iron, it is also more brittle, showing a tendency to crack when hit by heavy shells.
Soon after, two British companies developed "composite" armor, which featured the fusion of hard steel plates onto a soft and tough wrought-iron substrate. In both cases, the thickness of the steel plate is about one-third of the total thickness of the steel plate, which is 25% higher than wrought iron in terms of resistance to projectiles. In November 1882, a new round of tests was held in La Spezia to determine the best type of steel plate for Italian armor. Although all-steel seemed to show greater resistance, the composite steel plate was eventually selected as the main armor of the Italian. Just two years later, in October 1884. At this time the French Schneider had further improved its all-steel armor, and this time its advantage over composite armor was undeniable, so the main armor of Lepanto was provided by the French company with all-steel armor.
Early career number Italia. Please note the tent-like awning on the 17-inch gun and the searchlights mounted on the large stern crane.
Despite the different types of armor, the two ships protected the turrets of the 431 mm naval guns with steel plates of similar thickness. Protected by a multi-sided armored fort, the multi-sided fort was placed diagonally on the upper deck in the middle of the ship, slightly protruding on either side of the hull. Ammunition is removed from the ammunition depot and connected to the armored deck to the center of the turret with a supply tube. It is protected by a 400 mm steel plate.
There is a command tower on the flybridge at the bottom of the mast, which is equipped with a steering wheel and voice tubes for communication with all battle posts, engines and boiler rooms.
dynamical system
Basic data for the Italian-level powertrain
The design speed of 18 knots is unprecedented on a ship of this size, which is estimated to require 18,000 horsepower. This power is provided by four identical vertical three-cylinder reciprocating steam engines, two per axis.
The Italian class has 26 Admiralty oval fire tube boilers and is a space-saving variant of the standard cylindrical boiler. There are three boiler rooms in front of the cabin; The front compartment has six boilers and the other two compartments have four each. There are also three boiler rooms behind the engine, each with four boilers, which can be installed for a total of twelve boilers. Steam from any boiler can be directed to any of the four engines. Each boiler room has its own chimney.
Under the contract, the Italian was required to have an 18-knot speed. However, the ship never reached this speed. It began sea trials in December 1885, and at the end of March 1886, Italian media reported that its speed was 17.85 knots, but in fact it did not exceed 17.5 knots, and even at such a speed, it could only maintain it for about an hour.
The Italia's inability to increase her speed was due to its small boiler steam volume and insufficient ventilation, which led to excessive temperature in the boiler room. In addition, due to the forced ventilation system running at full speed, a large amount of coal dust is blown away by the fan, resulting in difficulty breathing for furnace workers.
In the Lepanto, the oval boiler and locomotive boiler were served by separate chimneys, so there were only four chimneys instead of the six in Italy. The forced supply air blower was rearranged, ventilation conditions were improved, and the problem of coal dust blowing out of the floor slabs was eliminated. These changes proved successful. In the trial from April to May 1888, she reached 18.38 knots.
In the velocimetry experiment, the lepanto running fast.
Overall evaluation
Italy and Lepanto, while revolutionary in design, did not bring about a revolution in battleship manufacturing. When they served, it was the time of the rapid-fire guns that determined the fate of the two steel giants. Their protective systems were designed to survive the occasional heavy armor-piercing shell fired by large slow-fire guns, but the hollow shells of the new small-caliber rapid-fire guns were filled with explosives that would destroy their waterline and cofferdams.
The Lepanto, the front awning was unfolded.
Lepanto, with an awning open on the rear deck.
Brin attempted to update the design concept of the "Italian" class on the three King Umberto classes built in 1884-95; The ships were similar in appearance to the layout of the British Admiral class at the time, but larger (13,600 tons) and faster (20 knots during sea trials). To protect their waterline from rapid-fire guns, they employed 100 mm waterline belt armor.
King Umberto class battleships, with a truly modern battleship layout.
However, as with the Italian class, their timing of service was also poor, because when they were in service, the 120 mm to 152 mm medium-caliber rapid-fire guns were widely used, making their thin waterline belts almost useless. At the same time, the introduction of surface hardened armor made it possible to provide broader side protection at a reasonable weight cost.
Umberto class Sicily
Umberto-class Sardinia
Italy and Lepanto were built into a cutting-edge warship with an innovative design design designed to meet the special requirements of the Italian Navy. However, the idea of taking armored deck protection, its logical conclusions, proved to be outdated. When they entered service, the development of rapid-fire guns made them easy to sink or capsize because their waterline was unarmored.
Service career and final outcome
The Italian number was officially named in a royal decree of 30 July 1876. On 10 January 1886, she raised the naval flag and in April conducted a short cruising exercise, visiting Naples, Palermo, Cagliari, the Bay of Palmas and Livorno before returning to La Spezia. From May to June 1886, she visited Portugal, Spain and France. On 11 July, she joined the main operational formation of the Italian Navy and on 1 August became the flagship of Vice Admiral Orengo. The squadron cruised greek and Turkish waters last October. Throughout 1887, Italy was in reserve at Napoli and La Spezia. From January 1888 she returned to the Naval Squadron and is now under the command of Vice Admiral Bertelli, participating in various exercises.
The Italian was incorporated into the reserve in November 1890. From 1891 to 1895, it was in a period of alternating active and reserve service. In 1895, she became the flagship of the 3rd Squadron of the Reserve, taking part in the short voyage of personnel training. In addition, in 1896, she served as a shooting training ship. In July of that year, the Italia became the main force in the 2nd Squadron of the Reserve.
Italian number in 1897
It was modified in 1905-06; The number of chimneys was reduced from 6 to 4, and military masts and battle tops were replaced by two light masts at the front and rear.
This is a photograph of the Italian after it was modified in 1905-06, it now has only four chimneys, and its heavy military masts have been replaced by front and rear masts
From 1909 to 1910, it was used as a torpedo school ship. In 1911, she was used as a water barracks. In the 1911-12 Italian-Turkish War, the Navy planned to use Italy and Lepanto to bomb the enemy's coast, as there were still a large number of 431 mm shells available. However, this plan was never implemented. In December 1912, the Italia was taken to service in Taranto as a school for sergeant majors and mechanics. A royal decree of 4 June 1914 removed it from the fleet list.
On 20 April 1915 it was towed to Brindisi, converted into a floating turret for port defense, and on 23 May 1915 it was again added to the fleet list as a first-class auxiliary ship. On December 16, 1917, it was transferred to La Spezia because it was converted into a transport ship for grain. The work was not completed until 1919; On 27 July, he was transferred to the State Railway Administration. On 13 January 1921, she returned to the Navy, was disarmed in Taranto, and finally dismantled and sold on 16 November 1921.
The Lepanto was officially named on 11 March 1877 and commissioned on 16 August 1887. On 14 May 1888 it was led by Rear Admiral Bertelli, together with the Italia. It was assigned to the Reserve in 1891 and recommissioned in April 1892. In 1893, it became the flagship of the Commander of the Fleet, under the command of Vice Admiral Tommaso di Savoia. On 27 April 1893 it was visited by King Umberto I and Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany. In February 1895, it was transferred to the reserve squadron. From March 26 to July 20, 1896, it served as a signalman and helmsman school, exercises.
In June 1897, it took part in a naval parade in Portsmouth to celebrate Queen Victoria's accession to the throne. From March 1902 to October 1910, it served in a shooting school in La Spezia and also participated in annual exercises.
Photographs of Lepanto taken after 1904. The 152 mm naval gun on the bow tower is clearly visible And above the anchor chain tube there is also a 37 mm rotary gun.
Another angle is the Lepanto photographed after 1904
In October 1910 it began as a water barracks. It was wounded on 26 March 1912, but rejoined the fleet as an auxiliary ship on 21 January 1913, she was wounded again on 1 January 1914 and sold as scrap on 27 March 1915.