Zhao Bo
Throughout Adam Smith's life, he has been immersed in academic and intellectual circles, and lacks the experience of trading. But his "The Wealth of Nations" reflects a wealth of business knowledge, such as the meaning of land rent, tax rebates, and what benefits the discovery of the East Indies route through the Cape of Good Hope can bring to Europe. Obviously, this knowledge was not imparted by his mentor Hutchison, nor was it the result of research in the Chair of Moral Philosophy. Adam Smith's time was a period of Transformation from an Agrarian to a commercial society in Scotland, and the prosperity of commerce, the prosperity of trade, and the development of the economy became the catalysts for Smith's economic thought. And the source of his inspiration and ideas was in all kinds of clubs - Adam Smith, an economist who "mixed" out of the club.
Economy and trade – the motif of the Glasgow Club
John Ray wrote in his biography of Adam Smith: "If he had not spent so many important times in his life in Glasgow, perhaps he would not have become such a brilliant economist." Adam Smith lived in Glasgow for a total of 17 years, during which time Glasgow gradually formed a number of clubs of academic and business elites. Adam Smith was involved in the Political Economy Club, the Literary Society, and the Robin Simson Club.
The Political Economy Club, also known as the Cochrane Club, was founded in 1743 by tobacco merchant Andrew Cochrane, whose public purpose was to "study the nature and principles of the various branches of commerce and to exchange knowledge and opinions in this regard." From 1744 to 1745, the club's activities came to a standstill due to the Jacobite rebellion. After 1750, with the addition of a group of intellectuals such as Adam Smith, the club began to gradually recover. Smith's greatest gain at this club was the increase in his knowledge of trade. Club member and pastor Alexander Creel once recalled: "In this club, the members expressed their strong interest in exploring the nature of trade and devising the rules of trade, and they learned from each other and exchanged ideas. At the club, Adam Smith submitted the Lecture of 1755. Although the manuscript is not known for its fragmentation, later scholars speculate that "it is likely to be the most popular topic of discussion in the club about trade principles, which will have a great impact on [club] members". In addition to Adam Smith, tobacco kings Grasford and Cochrane also discussed with club member Sir James Stewart on questions such as: What is the impact of paper money on prices? What is the impact on currency and foreign trade? What is the impact of small bank notes, and what is the impact of not exchanging bank notes?
Portrait of Adam Smith
Literary societies are more elitist. Founded in 1752, it met every Thursday at 6:30 p.m. from November to May of the following year, and consisted mainly of professors from the University of Glasgow, a small number of merchants, squires and municipal officials. Its promoters are Adam Smith James Moore, a Greek professor at the University of Glasgow, and James Watt and David Hume also appeared on the club's list at one point. Literary societies have a relatively strict organizational discipline, and participants are required to read articles or give speeches at the meeting on a regular basis. On 9 January 1755, Hume wrote to Smith, "Please pay tribute to the Literary Society." If I don't fulfill my responsibility to send them the anniversary article, you will bear the fault. Similar to the Political Economy Club, the main topic of discussion in the Literary Society was economics, particularly around the economics works published in Glasgow after 1750. Adam Smith asserted at the event: "There is no doubt that expanding trade and commerce have taken over people's thoughts and behaviors." On January 23, 1753, at a meeting of the Literary Society, Adam Smith read a discussion of the papers in David Hume's Collected Trade Papers, which included Hume's "On Commerce", "On Interest", "On the Balance of Trade", "On the Suspicion of Trade", etc., and it is not difficult to see from these titles that they have many connections with the topics discussed in "The Wealth of Nations". The atmosphere of discussion in the literary society is fierce, and the two sides of different views will argue-for-tat on a topic, which makes Smith, who is not good at words, often fall into a passive and defensive position. It is said that on one occasion, Smith disagreed with the members present on an issue, and after a fierce night of fighting, he was finally defeated because he was outnumbered. Afterwards he muttered, "Although I can't talk about you, I still think I'm right." ”
Portrait of Adam Smith's close friend David Hume
At the literary conference, everyone's views can be-for-tat and tense, but after the debate, they will switch to the "Robin Simson Club" to feast and drink and relax their nervous mood. Unlike the literary society, where ideas clash, the club, named after "Robin Simson," a professor of mathematics at the University of Glasgow, is more like an entertainment salon for the literati. The club's event venue is fixed in a small village called Anderstone, and the dishes served in the village shop are monotonous and boring, and the dishes are braised lamb offal, grilled sheep's head, grilled fish and stir-fried meat slices, but Katsumi is full of laughter. In this relaxed environment, Smith would play cards with his colleagues and chat with local friends, including James Watt, who later improved the steam engine. Despite the disparity in status (Smith was a professor at the University of Glasgow and Watt was a school worker), Smith was happy to discuss literary, religious, and moral issues with him. In British society at that time, this kind of communication platform that broke different classes was really rare. John Ray lamented in the biography of Adam Smith: "Watt was able to discuss the problem with the professors of the University of Glasgow once again: the university was very emancipated, very knowledgeable, aware that Watt was intelligent and could treat this man who was only a mechanic on a completely equal basis." It was this open platform of exchange that laid the foundation for Smith to accumulate knowledge and practice of trade and economics.
Politics and Agriculture – Themes of the Edinburgh Club
Adam Smith's vision was clearly not limited to Glasgow. On weekends, he gets on a mail truck and spends 13 hours in Edinburgh, where he meets and talks before returning to Glasgow the next day. At that time, Edinburgh was a place of European culture. Born here, David Hume called it "the real stage of the literati." Arthur Herman praised Scotland: The Beginnings of Civilization in the Modern World as "the capital of knowledge and culture" and "only London and Paris can match Edinburgh". Arthur Herman argues that Edinburgh, unlike the two cosmopolitan cities, is dominated by neither state institutions nor aristocratic salons and patronage. It was based on a group of strong, autonomous intellectuals and members of the Republic of Literature. The main form of these groups is still clubs.
Statue of Adam Smith in the city of Edinburgh
Unlike Glasgow's club, which embraces merchants and artisans, Edinburgh's clubs have three distinctive features:
First of all, Edinburgh's clubs have distinctly elite attributes, which can be seen from their names. In 1754, the select club was founded in Edinburgh by the painter Alan Ramsey, the son of booksellers and poets, and the first 32 members were also a temporary choice, including Adam Smith, David Hume, William Robert, John Home, Alexander Carlisle, Hugh Blair and others. In 1756, the Enlightenment thinker Adam Ferguson also joined the club. Similar to the Literary Society in Glasgow, the participants of the Merit Club were not only members, but also regular participants in the club's seminars, which met every Friday from 6 to 9 p.m., initially in a room in the Bar's Guild Library, but later due to the increase in the number of people, the original room was slightly cramped, and the event was held in a room upstairs in The River Hall, where the most active discussions were held by young lawyers and priests like Weddbourne and Robertson. Unlike the clubs in Glasgow, which focused on specific issues in commerce and trade, the merit-based clubs focused on politics, religion and agriculture. At the second regular session on 19 June 1754, Smith, who was president of the conference, proposed the following topics: First, whether it would be beneficial for England to accept a wide range of foreign Protestants; Second, whether incentives for grain exports are beneficial to agriculture and industry and commerce. Agriculture is also a topic of ongoing discussion at the club, such as: What benefits will animal husbandry bring to the public and the country? What benefits will cereal production bring to the public and the country? Is it advantageous for the mainland to promote large-scale agriculture or is it advantageous to implement a small-scale peasant economy?
Second, Edinburgh's clubs are not limited to asking questions, but the self-styled elite merit-based clubs have also been pushing for specific problems. Just 10 months into its existence, the club has developed a wide-ranging program that rewards people who contribute in various fields. Of course, this kind of reward is also quite Characteristic of Scotland. For example, the textile industry is Scotland's traditional strength. In order to improve the overall level of the textile industry, the Merit Club decided to give a material reward to the best printed linen and cotton cloth manufactured in a certain period of time. In addition to the textile industry, brewing is also a traditional industry in Scotland, with whisky preferred by the upper middle class as Scotland's national wine, and the lower working class preferring beer. The Merit Club is looking to improve Scotland's homegrown brewing industry, believing that there is plenty of room for improvement in the quality and flavour of whisky, as well as plenty of room for pastels. The club hopes to promote the quality and sales of whiskey and pale ale through concrete measures. This seemingly unrelated discussion sparked a dissenting opinion from the club, with founder Ramsey believing that focusing on improving the quality of flax or selling more beer would not benefit the Scottish economy, but Adam Smith disagreed, believing that Scotland's immediate priority was still to stimulate the development of industry and agriculture, so he sincerely supported the new plan.
Of course, the Edinburgh Club is not concerned with the details of these industrial and agricultural developments. In fact, as scotland's capital, politics has always been an enduring hot spot in the Edinburgh Club. In 1762, the Porker Club was formed, which soon replaced the merit-based club that had disbanded the following year as a place for Edinburgh's cultural elite to gather. One of the most important initiatives after the club's formation was to reinstate militias in Scotland. In any country, the establishment of militias and military organizations is a patent of the government. Why would a group of "show talents" eagerly discuss this issue? Arthur Herman's explanation is that behind this enthusiasm lurks a disturbing memory of 1745. During the Jacobite rebellion, Edinburgh organized vigilante groups to resist the rebel siege, only to suffer humiliation without a fight. The prosperity of Scottish commercial society in the 18th century created great wealth, but the merger of Scotland and England did not give the Scots a greater sense of security, but a strong sense of deprivation, in the event of war, who would defend the interests of the Scots themselves? This gave them a strong will to build their own militia. Adam Smith argues that while peacetime militias are nowhere near as good as professional regular armies, practice on the battlefield can make them stronger. Through these appearances, the essence of the establishment of militias in Scotland was to allow industrious peasants and manufacturing owners to finally share in the privileges enjoyed exclusively by the great nobles, large landowners and great bureaucrats, and to let the people rise up on their own to defend themselves, but apparently this initiative exceeded the reality of Scotland at that time, and it was not until 1786 that the second Fire Pincer Club, which inherited the cause, did not achieve this goal, and it was not until 1793 that the militia was established in Scotland.
Finally, the third feature of the Edinburgh Club is the publication of its own publications. Unlike Glasgow, whose club influence was largely concentrated within the literati community, Edinburgh's clubs began to experiment with publications, the most representative of which was the Edinburgh Review. The literary journal was a fateful one, publishing only two issues in the 18th century (the journal was later revived in 1818): the inaugural issue was in July 1755, and the second issue was published in January 1756. Despite its short life cycle, it was a brilliant one, and not only did the editorial team come from merit-based clubs, but even Smith wrote <爱丁堡评论>a letter to the founder expressing his expectations for the publication. He wrote: "On the one hand, I hope that your journal, with its consistent humanistic spirit and frank style, will continue to pay attention to every good work of sufficient standards that has emerged in Scotland; At the same time, it is necessary to open our eyes and extend to the plans that are now aimed only at England and apply them to all of Europe. The journal's publication reads: "If the country also has an age, Scotland is in the teenage years. If there's one thing that can propel Scotland forward, it's science. At present, there are two obstacles hindering the progress of Scottish literature and art: one is the backwardness of printing technology; The second is that it is impossible to fully grasp authentic English, "therefore, the intention of this journal is: at this special stage of development on the mainland, people should realize that with the continuous progress of science, people should be inspired to concentrate more on their studies, make achievements, and win honors for the motherland." This Scottish-like New Youth sounded the clarion call for a "new culture" from the very beginning, and its goal was to improve Scotland's cultural status. Cultural people go from the bookstore to the society, to guide the people to improve themselves, to become the practical significance of the club and cultural consciousness.
There are many differences between Edinburgh and Glasgow clubs, but the only constant is Smith's personality. In the memory of the club members, "he was a difficult guest most of the time because he rarely spoke, but once he opened the conversation box, he would talk at length." Not only was he unable to grasp the rhythm of speech, Smith often spoke regardless of the occasion. Once, he was talking about criticizing a Scottish politician when someone next to him kindly reminded him that among the guests sitting at the same table were the politician's close relatives, asking him to pay more attention. Smith's response was to mutter, "But I'm telling the truth." ”
Hurried passers-by – the experience of a London club
In addition to scotland's Twin Cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, Adam Smith also played a club in London. Although the club does not have a fancy name, the membership line-up is luxurious, and the dictionary compiler Samuel Johnson, the historian Edward Gibbon, the literary scholar James Boswell, and the thinker Edmund Burke are all guests of the club.
By the time Adam Smith entered the London "club" in 1775, he was already a full-fledged economist. The following year, he published his masterpiece, The Wealth of Nations, which had been brewing for 10 years. But before the publication of this tome, which laid the foundation for his economic father, no one in London's intellectual circles regarded him as an economist, and he was still familiar with his masterpiece", "The Theory of Moral Sentiments". From clubs in Scotland to clubs in London, Smith's presence was low. Samuel Johnson, the club's leading figure, commented to friend Temple when Smith was selected that the club "has lost the character of its selection". In the subsequent relationship, Smith did not leave any good impression on the other party. Johnson said Smith was "the dullest guy he's ever met." He also complained to Poiswell: "Adam Smith finished drinking, his mouth was full of alcohol, and he became extremely annoying." If Johnson's indifference to Smith stemmed somewhat from England's arrogance, his compatriot Boswell's antipathy toward Smith was somewhat unusual. On the one hand, he praised Smith as "a very hard-working man with all kinds of topics stuffed in his head", and on the other hand, he criticized that he "could not find johnson's strength, sensitivity and anger". As for why Smith appeared to be conservative and lacking in sharpness, Boswell's explanation was that although Smith had his own unique insights, he preferred to express them in printed words rather than in social environments that could be misunderstood. At one point he told Sir Joshua Reynolds that he had a principle of never talking in front of others about what he really understood. ”。
Portrait of Samuel Johnson
Neither Johnson nor Boswell wanted to see Adam Smith, and Smith had no sympathy for either of them. Smith once commented on Johnson: "I've seen the guy suddenly stand up straight in the mixed crowd, kneel behind a chair without informing others beforehand, repeat the Lord's Prayer, and then go back to the table seat." He showed this strange move over and over again, about five or six times a night. Of Samuel Johnson's English Dictionary, which Smith praised as "indeed a great work," he wrote in a useful way: "We cannot help but hope that when an author explains the non-standard way of writing some words—though sometimes it is possible to find books by well-known writers—it would be better not to rely so much on the staff of others, but to use more of his own judgment." After abstract affirmation, he also made a specific negation of many details in the book, such as the structural arrangement did not conform to the rules of grammar, and the different meanings of a word were not properly classified. This cannot simply be regarded as a harmony between gentlemen, but a fundamental difference in temperament and thought between the two, and both sides have differences in their views on religion and morality, and naturally drift away in the field of the club.
Exchange – the club's principle of business society
Throughout Smith's life, the club career continued throughout all stages of his career. The reason Why Smith is so actively involved in the club's activities is because the club is valuable to it. As a space for knowledge exchange, the club gave Smith a field of knowledge exchange, and much of his knowledge of business knowledge came from the club or the businessmen friends he made in the club. In the case of the Political Economy Club, whose soul was Andrew Cochrane, a former Glasgow businessman, in which Alecsan Kree recalls: "Dr Smith admitted that in preparing the material for The Wealth of Nations, he drew a great deal of knowledge and nourishment from this gentleman [referring to Cochrane]. Not only did he communicate in the club, Smith also maintained correspondence with the club members. On 5 November 1764, the tobacco merchant Grassford, a member of the Political and Economic Club, wrote to Smith: "Please inquire about any news here from other communicators. I really can't think of anything worth saying, unless there is only one point, which is that the MPs in Scotland now seem to have decided to propose in the next Parliament the abolition of the abolition of banks and bank banknotes can be exchanged for cash at will, you know, this bill was rejected in the previous Parliament. It is not difficult to see from this that Smith's communication with club members is not limited to the venue. Conversely, when Smith "never talks in front of others about what he really appreciates" at clubs in London, his value at the club is greatly diminished. Exchange produces value, not only in commerce and trade, but also in clubs where people get along.
Resources
1. Arthur Herman, Scotland: The Beginning of Civilization in the Modern World, Translated by enlightenment compilation, Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Press, 2016
2. Adam Smith, A Study on the Nature and Causes of National Wealth, translated by Guo Dali and Wang Yanan, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1997
3. Ernest Mosner and Ian Simpson Ross, eds., The Correspondence of Adam Smith, translated by Lin Guofu and Wu Liangjian, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 2012
4. John Ray: The Biography of Adam Smith, translated by Hu Qilin and Chen Yingnian, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 2014
5. Adam Smith: Collected Philosophical Writings of Adam Smith, translated by Shi Xiaozhu and Sun Mingli, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 2016
6. [Beauty] Leo Damrosch, "Return to yesterday's world: From Samuel Johnson to Adam Smith, a group of people who shaped the times", Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2022 edition
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