1. Heraldic porcelain
Heraldic porcelain is a kind of "export porcelain" in ancient China, which belongs to the "custom-fired porcelain" of "sample processing". It was painted and fired by the craftsmen of Jingdezhen according to the types, shapes, styles, ornaments, construction periods, etc. provided by European orderers, so the heraldic porcelain had the characteristics of traditional Chinese porcelain craftsmanship and reflected the elegant decorative style of Western Europe at that time. Because this heraldic porcelain is printed with the coat of arms of european aristocratic families, it is also known as "coat of arms porcelain".
Qingqianlong guangcai depiction gold pattern plate (customized by the parents of Catherine the Great of Russia)
Beginning during the Jiajing period of the Ming Dynasty, Portugal in Europe ordered heraldic porcelain from China. The earliest specimen of heraldic porcelain found so far is a blue and white porcelain pot decorated with the heraldry of King Manuel I of Portugal.
Qingyongzheng white glazed flower wide color plate (British Willis family custom)
In the Qing Dynasty, There is an account of heraldic porcelain in the book "Tao Ya", and when he mentions a large plate of Qing Kangxi blue and white, he said: "The imperial crown badge is painted on the plate, and there are two wings of lions and dogs next to it, which are divided on it." Contains latin ancient chinese, solar calendar year and month. "The picture below is a porcelain plate of pastel badges from the Qianlong Dynasty, decorated with crown badges, and there are lions and dogs on both sides, climbing on it, lifelike and healthy.
Guangzhou was the large wharf for the export of "heraldic porcelain" at that time
With the normalization of trade, major European countries have been allowed to open their own trading stations in Guangzhou, and many stores have been born along the Pearl River in Guangzhou that specialize in undertaking European ordering business. Here, foreign merchants can sign agreements with Guangdong merchants to make detailed agreements according to the types, shapes, styles, and construction periods specified by foreign merchants. Then, Guangdong merchants sent the order to Jingdezhen thousands of miles away for firing.
2. Guangcai porcelain
Guangcai is the abbreviation of Guangzhou weaving gold color porcelain, is the Qing Dynasty specially for export and production of glazed painted porcelain varieties, it is gorgeous, golden brilliant.
Brilliant and gorgeous, golden and brilliant
Guangcai porcelain was produced by the Qing Dynasty to meet the needs of export. At that time, they transported the plain porcelain blanks burned in Jingdezhen to Guangzhou, and then painted them on the plain porcelain blanks according to the needs of foreign merchants, and baked them at 700 ° C to 750 ° C. Guangcai began in the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty, flourished in the Qianlong and Jiaqing years, and has been passed down to this day, becoming a well-known porcelain art at home and abroad.
In the twenty-third year of the Qing Kangxi Dynasty (1684), the sea ban was lifted, and the following year the customs were officially established in Chinese history, at which time the number of merchant ships from foreign countries coming to China increased. Western Chonghua porcelain, ordered or sampled in Guangzhou, thus promoting the production and development of Guangcai porcelain. From the middle and late Kangxi to the Yongzheng period, it was the initial stage of Guangcai, and very few physical objects were handed down in China. At this time, both the master and the paint came from Jingdezhen, most of them were drawn according to the Jingdezhen color porcelain pattern, still with more traces of Jingdezhen color porcelain, and the color contrast was not as strong as that of later ones.
From the 17th century to the 18th century, Guangcai gradually formed a distinct personality, but also coincided with the European rococo fashion and China's popularity. Therefore, as one of the varieties of export porcelain, the shape of Guangcai porcelain is partially imitated from Western silverware; and the ornamentation also imitates the Western art form in large quantities, with strong colors and curved lines, catering to the aesthetic tastes of Westerners at that time, and many works reflect a strong Rococo art style. After the 19th century, Guangcai's style changed due to changes in the market, and the style of full composition, brilliant colors and golden splendor became the typical characteristics of Guangcai and has been passed down to this day.
Integrate Chinese and Western to adapt to the market
Because of its export characteristics, Guangcai makes it compatible with the connotation of Eastern and Western cultures, and has become a carrier of interaction and exchange between Chinese and Western cultures. In its development process of more than 300 years, it has been brilliant, but also full of twists and turns.
From the 18th century to the early 19th century, Guangcai porcelain was mostly sold to Europe, so the influence of the Rococo fashion in Europe at that time on Guangcai porcelain was more obvious. In addition to continuing the traditional Chinese painting method, the perspective technique of Western painting is also introduced, especially the influence of Western oil painting and printmaking, which is heavy with color. The ornamentation is mostly decorated with "S" shaped lines, and the colors are bright. European custom heraldic porcelain was the most abundant during this period. The ornaments such as figures, flowers, and garden landscapes are both Western and Chinese. The "Mandarin" ornamentation among Chinese characters is more popular, and sets of customized tableware, tea sets, and coffee utensils have also begun to appear in large quantities.
Guangcai heraldic porcelain plate Qing Yongzheng Guangdong Provincial Museum collection
After the successful maiden voyage of the "Empress of China" in the forty-ninth year of Qianlong (1784), the sales market of Guangcai gradually shifted to the United States. Unlike Europe, which mainly consumes the upper class of society, Guangcai porcelain is popular in the United States by all social strata. At that time, the decorative fashion of gold tones was widely popular in the United States, which led to the style change of Guangcai porcelain decorated with strong red, green and gold, especially the use of gold color was unprecedentedly prominent. This decorative style is full of composition, brilliant colors, and dazzling gold, which has become a typical feature of Guangcai and continues to this day. Stylized style evolution is also to adapt to the needs of mass production in the market. At this stage, the ornaments such as "Mandarin", Western characters, Western landscapes, and Western flowers gradually disappeared, and Chinese-style open-clothed figures, Chinese landscape landscapes, and flower and bird motifs were the mainstays.
From the end of the Qing Dynasty to the beginning of the Republic of China, while continuing the traditional style of Guangcai porcelain, another style appeared due to the intervention of the painters of the Lingnan School of Painting - the technique of integrating Chinese painting into porcelain painting made the Guangcai picture appear similar to the characteristics of light color and new color, and some of the painting subjects also implied politics. This short exploration injected new vitality into the development of Guangcai. After the middle of the Republic of China, due to wars and other reasons, the production of Guangcai porcelain was greatly impacted, and it was mostly moved to Hong Kong and Macao, at which time the style of Guangcai porcelain returned to the traditional style.
Guangcai floral pattern Taiping has elephant candlestick Qing's Guangxu Guangdong Provincial Museum collection
Inheriting innovation and becoming an intangible cultural heritage
After the founding of new China, with the strong support of the state, Guangcai technicians from Hong Kong and Macao and technicians from the mainland jointly created a new glory of Guangcai porcelain: while inheriting the tradition, taking the road of diversification and change. At this stage, Guangcai's painting techniques have made breakthroughs on the basis of tradition: more integrated with Jingdezhen color porcelain and Chinese painting techniques; ornamental themes and colors are more abundant and diverse; in addition to painting traditional utensils, innovative explorations in different art forms such as murals and sculptures have also been made. The overall ornamental layout retains most of the traditional style of dense and not messy.
In the 21st century, Guangcai porcelain has gradually shifted to the production of fine crafts and works of art, the product types are more diversified, and the artistic techniques and techniques are also more colorful and expressive due to the extensive absorption of nutrients from other colored porcelain and handicraft species, so that Guangcai production has entered a period of diversified development. In 2008, Guangcai was included in the "Second Batch of National Intangible Cultural Heritage List", which is a big step forward for the protection, inheritance and promotion of Guangcai porcelain firing technology.
Guangcai porcelain is a product of a specific historical and cultural background, and is a special variety of export porcelain. On the one hand, it uses Chinese elements to attract the interests of Westerners, and on the other hand, it also deliberately integrates Western elements to cater to the tastes of Westerners, so it has a unique personality and charm. Today's Guangcai porcelain is also constantly pioneering and innovating on the road of inheriting tradition.
3. Clark porcelain
In 1602, the Portuguese merchant ships Clarke And The Santa Catharina trafficked in bulk Chinese commodities (mainly blue and white porcelain from the Ming Dynasty in China) from China, both intercepted by the newly established Dutch East India Company. The porcelain was shipped to Middelburg and Amsterdam in the Netherlands for auction, which was very profitable, and this "trade event" caused a sensation in Europe and greatly stimulated the desire of the Dutch East India Company to deal in Chinese goods, especially Chinese ceramics. At that time, the specific origin of this porcelain is unknown, these export porcelain fired from the Chinese Wanli period, was intercepted by a merchant ship departing from clark port in Portugal, and made its debut in the Dutch auction market, and Europeans named this porcelain "Clark porcelain".
Dutch East India Company merchant ships 16th-17th centuries
East India Company Custom Heraldic Porcelain Plate Partial Drawing
According to the statistics of relevant foreign archives, from the establishment of the Dutch East India Company to the Thirty-four Years of kangxi in the Qing Dynasty (1602-1695), 20 million pieces of Chinese porcelain were trafficked to Europe (including blue and white, multicolored and Guangcai porcelain in the Ming and Qing dynasties), and the porcelain sold to Europe included pure Chinese style products, there were also Western style products fired to adapt to European living customs and aesthetic habits, and there were also products that integrated Chinese and Western styles.
This unique style of porcelain should mention the Ming Dynasty Longqing Kaihai Ban. Due to the early years of Hongwu in the early Ming Dynasty, the conquest edict "no plates shall enter the sea" and the implementation of the policy of sea ban, overseas trade was severely restricted. Until 1667, the first year of longqing in the Ming Dynasty, it was announced that it was open to the outside world, abolished the sea ban, allowed overseas trade and trade, and from the Ming Dynasty Wanli, the export porcelain began to be marketed overseas, which was greatly loved by Europeans.
Clark porcelain, not first introduced to Europe by the Dutch, was brought to Portugal and Spain by Portuguese merchants as early as the 16th century. At that time, the monarchs of both countries owned such porcelain and had a special exhibition room in the imperial palace.
Since Clark porcelain became an important commodity for the Dutch East India Company, its price has declined in the European market, and both the middle class and the general public class can own this type of oriental porcelain from afar. Although Clark porcelain was no longer a luxury only enjoyed by the royal family, the European love for it continued unabated, and this special trade continued until the time of Yongzheng and Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty. According to the Dutch C.J.A. Jorg, the number of porcelain shipped to Britain by the Dutch East India Company in the thirty-ninth year of Qianlong still reached nearly 400,000 pieces, of which Clark porcelain should no longer be a minority.
"Open light" is also known as open window, also known as "open hall" among the old artists in Jingdezhen, which is one of the decoration methods commonly used in ceramic art. In order to make the decoration on the utensils change a variety, or highlight a certain image, often in a certain position of the utensils to leave a certain shape (such as: fan-shaped, diamond-shaped, heart-shaped, etc.) space and then decorate the pattern in the space, called "open light". That is, in the prominent parts of the utensils, the frame of circular, square and other shapes is outlined with lines, and various patterns are painted in the frame, such as landscapes, figures, flowers, etc., which play a prominent role in the theme decoration.
Clark porcelain is shaped with thin tires, and there are two kinds of discs, round mouth and diamond mouth, with round mouth as the common. Broad plate edges, shallow arc belly, flat bottom, circle foot. Sizes vary. The ornamentation is divided into three groups, and the bottom center depicts the main ornament, including flowers, flower baskets, birds, dragons and phoenixes, strange beasts, landscapes, and characters. Theme ornamentation in addition to flowers, flower baskets when there is an exotic style, other drawings are traditional Chinese style, the main body ornament is surrounded by a continuous arc pattern, usually there are six arcs, seven arcs, eight arcs, even the arc is filled with durian patterns, swastika patterns, honeysuckle patterns, etc., this is the second group of ornamental bands. The third group of ornamental characters is connected to the outside of the market, and is characterized by the open light form. Depending on the size of the disc, there are eight open lights that are all twenty open lights. The open light form is fan-shaped, diamond-shaped, lotus petal-shaped, oval, etc., often there are large open light, small switch light interphase form, the gap between the open light is filled with durian patterns, and the open light is painted with peach fruit, bergamot, lychee (harmonic lizi) and miscellaneous treasures and seasonal flowers, which means multi-life, multi-blessing and multi-son, respectively.
Blue and white flowers and birds pattern open light porcelain plate Qing Kangxi
Clark porcelain painting with the pen absurdity of nature, yi pen sloppy, unrestrained, almost do not see a trace of rigid timidity, showing the painter's mentality master calm and leisurely, not seeking work and self-work layout is full and not dense, complex and not chaotic, although it belongs to the full-density layout, but between the images can be sparse, there is a sense of breathability, visual effect is very good.
Blue and white flowers and birds pattern open light porcelain plate partial Early Qing Dynasty
Blue and white coat of arms inscription floral pattern Clark bowl 17th century
Clark porcelain blue and white hair color is thick, slightly black or gray phenomenon, very pure and colorful porcelain is rare, some blue and white hair color blue in the flash purple, the use of domestic blue and white cobalt material and imported back to the green material in accordance with a certain proportion of mixing sake.
Blue and white pine crane long-term figure kaiguang porcelain plate partial late Ming and early Qing dynasty
How did the Europeans make porcelain?
It is said that the first Piece of European Porcelain was by a German named Porter. Bouger was an alchemist who claimed to know the trick of turning lead into gold.
Ming Wanli Blue and White Clark Porcelain Plate Collection of victoria and albert museum
At that time, porcelain in Europe can be called "white gold", it is exquisite, durable, originated in China. In the 14th century, the traveler Mark Polo brought porcelain back to Europe for the first time from China. It was a delicate and compact teapot with a gray-green texture on the surface. In addition to porcelain, he brought back satin, spices, and small incense burners with musky smells.
It was not until the 16th century that The Portuguese and dutch in Europe opened up trade routes and formally traded with the Far East, attracting a large number of oriental products to flow in, and the market was prosperous. Among these products, porcelain is produced exclusively in China. At that time, as long as the style was described and the order was placed, it was expected that China's high-quality porcelain would enter the West.
The Qing Dynasty exported tongcao paintings reproduced the dazzling variety of thirteen-line ceramic shops in that year. At that time, the thirteen lines of shops were most concentrated in "New China Street" (Laowai name, that is, today's Tongwen Street) and "Old China Street" (LaoWai name, that is, today's Jingyuan Street), and there was also a street called "Hog Lane" (also known as "New Bean Lan Street").
A plate of Clean porcelain with a scene of Jesus' baptism painted in the middle, a lush magnolia tree in the background, and several dancing angels painted on the edges. A porcelain pot with a gold rim that outlines the face of George Washington comes to life, and this pot was made between the 18th and 20th centuries. To this day, Westerners are still marveling at the exquisiteness of porcelain and the intricacies of its craftsmanship.
Fired
If Europeans could make porcelain in the home country, it would be cheaper and easier to buy, while also reducing breakage and errors in shipment. But for more than 500 years, Europeans were helpless to make porcelain.
The Packaging Scene of Guangzhou Porcelain Before Ocean Shipping embodies the Painting of Guangzhou Porcelain Exporting Through Grass Painting in the Qing Dynasty. Inside the large wooden barrels were saucers tied with straw, and the extra space in the box was filled with sago, which itself was a bulk commodity for trade.
Mark Polo apparently couldn't find the gist of the craftsmanship, "Porcelain is made of sand or clay, the soil is dug out of the ground, piled into mounds, left in the open for 30 to 40 days, subject to wind, rain and sunlight, whereby the soil is purified and the processed porcelain takes on a brighter color." ”
In 1550, it was again argued that "porcelain is made of some kind of liquid underground processed, which is unique to the East", and in 1557 a more specious hypothesis was proposed, "the eggshell or fish scales are ground into a powder, stirred with clear water, put into a mold, and buried in the ground." After a hundred years, it is taken out again, and the formed product is porcelain. ”
Ming Blue and white coat of arms and inscription Clark Bowl Collection of the British Museum
None of these claims are accurate. The core ingredients of porcelain are actually kaolin and porcelain stone. It was not until the beginning of the 18th century, when the missionary Entrecole described the craftsmanship of Chinese porcelain in letters, that the mystery of Chinese porcelain began to be unveiled in Europe.
In his work The Road to White Porcelain, Edmund chronicles the history of the emergence and spread of porcelain. Porcelain was born in Jingdezhen, after which the German alchemist Porter announced that he had made porcelain, which spread to Mason, Germany, and the first porcelain factory in Europe was established.
From about 1775 to 1780, the British Worcester Porcelain Factory collected colorful beasts and bogu tupan british museums
Later, the British believer William Cookworthy also made porcelain, followed by the birth of the British craft company Wedgwood. Today, Wedgwood is the world's most traditional symbol of british ceramic art, becoming a provider of royal porcelain to the British royal family.
In the process of porcelain making, patience and technology are indispensable. Even a little more water can change the texture of the porcelain. The thickness of the porcelain must also be uniform, otherwise cracks will appear when the porcelain is cooled. "Other products, perhaps the uneven thickness and thickness have no great impact, but porcelain is not." Any mistake in production will lead to production failure," Edmund wrote.
Qing Kangxi Colorful Rui Beast Pattern Melon Lang Holding Pot Collection of the Palace Museum
While the likelihood of failure is high, this does not in any way obscure the value of a successful after-product. The porcelain is thin and uniform, lustrous, and strong and stable, and when struck with a spoon, the sound is clear and full of amazing beauty and power. A poem in the Tang Dynasty described porcelain as follows: "Qiaoqiao mingyue dyes spring water, gently swirls thin ice and blooms green clouds." ”
Edmund described porcelain making this way: "Pinch a walnut-sized piece of earth with your thumb and forefinger until it becomes as thin as paper until your fingerprints appear on its surface." Continue to pinch carefully, and the process seems to be endless. You feel it getting thinner and thinner until it becomes like a golden leaf, as if it were so light that it was going to float in the air. You feel it clean and flawless, and even your hands are clean and fresh. That feeling is pure white." Edmund's writings make people feel his fascination with porcelain.
Why would someone spend half their life studying porcelain craftsmanship? Why did the king crave and need porcelain so much? After all, this level of matter has long since departed from the category of necessities. "The kings enjoyed being jealous and frightening, enjoyed the pleasure of collecting rare treasures, and greedily wanted more."
Auguste II
Doubtful clouds
In fact, the founder of European porcelain was not the German alchemist Porter. In fact, the person most likely to decipher the porcelain was Chernhaus, a mathematician, physicist, and philosopher.
The king of Saxony and Poland at the time was Augustus II, who appointed Botgar to assist Chernhaus in his experiments in porcelain making. The two worked together for 5 years, and the research was always led by Chernhaus. The two then completed the first prototype of porcelain, a "translucent, milky white" jar, and soon after, Chernhaus died. Based on Chernhaus's data, Bottger eventually perfected the process of making porcelain.
Circa 1730-1745 Maternity and Infant Tupan Collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum
Auguste II was a shopaholic who was particularly obsessed with porcelain. He wrote in a letter: "A man who likes porcelain is no different from an orange, and once he is obsessed with something, he will never be satisfied and want more." In 1733, August II died, leaving behind a financially strapped country, 9 children, and 35,798 fine pieces of porcelain.
It was not until the middle of the 18th century that the British also began to produce porcelain. The European porcelain industry flourished unprecedentedly, porcelain was no longer just a symbol of the status of the nobility, and the middle class was able to buy porcelain, or keep it for themselves to admire, or give as a gift to others.
Qing Qianlong blue and white depiction of golden landscape water pattern tea pot Victoria and Albert Museum collection
Porcelain was also favored by its leaders, and Le Corbusier, in Contemporary Decorative Arts, included a photograph of Lenin drinking coffee in a white porcelain cup with a dome lid and a smooth white mouth. In 1972, when Nixon visited China, he also brought two porcelain swans made in Trenton, New Jersey, and gave them to Mao Zedong.
Edmund believed that porcelain was "white, smooth, and perfect," containing power, beauty, destiny, and love. King Louis XIV of France built a porcelain pavilion for the princess, and inside the pavilion, he and the princess slept on a Chinese bed, and the upper ceiling was painted with Chinese birds. Porcelain seems to have the magic of detaching people from reality.
Ming Jiajing Exterior alum red depiction gold inner blue pattern bowl Victoria and Albert Museum collection
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Source: Tao Yetu said