Features of Science 科學的特點
Objectivity and the empirical method 客觀性和實證方法: Psychologists should aim to be objective in their work. This means not letting their personal biases affect the results of studies. The research method which tends to be the most objective is the laboratory experiment, as the impact of variables is closely controlled. The empirical method refers to using observable evidence to draw conclusions and propose theories. 心理學家應力求在工作中保持客觀。這意味着不要讓他們的個人偏見影響研究的結果。傾向于最客觀的研究方法是實驗室實驗，因為變量的影響受到嚴格控制。經驗法是指使用可觀察的證據來得出結論和提出理論。
Replicability 可重複性: This is the ability to repeat psychological studies in order to check that the findings are reliable. This is an important aspect of science, as it means that the findings can be repeated at different times, in different places, with different participants. If similar results are seen each time, the results are generalizable, and the validity is strengthened. 這是重複心理學研究的能力，以檢查研究結果是否可靠。這是科學的一個重要方面，因為它意味着研究結果可以在不同的時間、不同的地點、不同的參與者身上重複。如果每次都能看到類似的結果，那麼結果就是可推廣的，有效性就會加強。
Falsifiability 可證僞性: The philosopher Karl Popper (1934) argued that in order for a theory to be truly scientific, it must be falsifiable- in other words, be possible to be proved wrong. It is very difficult to prove that something is true but it is possible to prove something is false. Popper used the example of swans. 哲學家卡爾-波普爾（1934）認為，為了使一個理論真正成為科學，它必須是可證僞的，換句話說，有可能被證明是錯誤的。要證明一件事是真的非常困難，但要證明一件事是假的則是可能的。
If the theory is that all swans are white, then no amount of observations of white swans would ‘prove’ this, as there might be a black swan out there that hasn’t been observed.波普爾以天鵝為例。如果理論是所有的天鵝都是白色的，那麼對白色天鵝的觀察再多也不能 "證明 "這一點，因為可能有一隻黑天鵝還沒有被觀察到。
Therefore, the researcher should try to find the black swan. If one is found, the theory is false, and would need to be modified. Theories which survive repeated attempts to prove it wrong can be accepted as being very likely to be true. They can never be fully ‘proved’, which is why researchers would not say that the results of a study ‘prove that’ a theory is correct. 是以，研究人員應該努力尋找黑天鵝。如果發現了黑天鵝，那麼這個理論就是錯誤的，就需要進行修改。那些經得起反複嘗試以證明其錯誤的理論可以被接受為非常可能是真實的。它們永遠不可能被完全 "證明"，這就是為什麼研究人員不會說一項研究的結果 "證明 "一個理論是正确的。
Theory construction and hypothesis testing 理論建構和假設檢驗: A theory is a set of general laws or rules to explain events or behaviours. A theory might be put forward about a particular aspect of behaviour, such as memory, social influence or attachment behaviour. This forms the basis of a hypothesis- a testable prediction of what will happen in a research study investigating the theory. Once the study is conducted, the hypothesis can be accepted or rejected, leading to acceptance of the theory or modification of the theory. This process is known as deduction.
理論是一套解釋事件或行為的一般規律或規則。一個理論可能是關于行為的一個特定方面，如記憶、社會影響或依戀行為。這構成了假設的基礎--對調查該理論的研究中會發生什麼的可測試的預測。一旦進行了研究，假說就可以被接受或拒絕，進而導緻對理論的接受或對理論的修改。這個過程被稱為演繹法。
Paradigms and paradigm shifts 範式和範式的轉變: A paradigm is a particular set of assumptions or a generally accepted way of thinking within a subject or discipline such as science. Philosopher Thomas Kuhn (1962) suggested that psychology and other social sciences are not scientific, as they do not possess a single paradigm- they have a number of competing assumptions (for example, the various approaches to psychology each emphasise a different explanation of human behaviour). 範式是一套特定的假設或科學等學科内普遍接受的思維方式。哲學家托馬斯-庫恩（1962）提出，心理學和其他社會科學并不科學，因為它們不具備單一的範式--它們有許多互相競争的假設（例如，心理學的各種方法各自強調對人類行為的不同解釋）。
Subjects such as biology on the other hand do have an accepted set of assumptions, which according to Kuhn makes them truly scientific. Kuhn also said that every so often a paradigm shift takes place, where a new way of thinking takes over. This happens once enough evidence emerges to challenge the current paradigm. An example of a paradigm shift would be when Einstein’s theory of relativity changed the accepted assumptions within physics. 另一方面，生物學等學科确實有一套公認的假設，按照庫恩的說法，這使它們成為真正的科學。庫恩還說，每隔一段時間就會發生一次範式轉變，即一種新的思維方式占據上風。一旦出現足夠的證據來挑戰目前的範式，這種情況就會發生。範式轉變的一個例子是，愛因斯坦的相對論改變了實體學中的公認假設。
It could be argued that, despite Kuhn’s views, psychology does have a paradigm- for example, the acceptance of the scientific method to test theories- and has gone through paradigm shifts- for example Wundt’s structuralism, to behaviourism, to the cognitive neuroscience model being dominant in the subject. In addition, science itself is characterised by internal conflict, so may not have a paradigm of its own. 可以說，盡管有庫恩的觀點，但心理學确實有一個範式--例如，接受科學方法來檢驗理論--并且經曆了範式的轉變--例如，翁特的結構主義，到行為主義，到認知神經科學模式在該學科中占主導地位。此外，科學本身的特點是内部沖突，是以可能沒有自己的範式。
Is Psychology a Science? 心理學是一門科學嗎？
Arguments in favour include 贊成的論點包括:
- Theories are based on empirical evidence. 理論是基于經驗證據的
- Empirical evidence sometimes produces unexpected results, showing that psychology is more than just ‘common sense’ 經驗性證據有時會産生意想不到的結果，表明心理學不僅僅是 "常識"
- It has arguably gone through paradigm shifts. 可以說，它經曆了範式的轉變
- Theories developed have led to treatments for abnormal behaviours, which have greatly helped people. 所開發的理論導緻了對異常行為的治療，這對人們有很大幫助
Arguments against include 反對的論點包括:
- The methods used in psychology are prone to bias, for example demand characteristics from participants. 心理學使用的方法容易産生偏見，例如對參與者的特征有要求
- It may not be possible to produce universal laws in psychology, as research studies will be drawn from samples which might not apply to all 在心理學中可能不可能産生普遍的規律，因為研究會從樣本中抽取，而這些樣本可能并不适用于所有人
- Some psychological theories are not directly testable (cognitive, evolutionary, psychodynamic explanations) so can’t be objectively measured. 有些心理學理論是不能直接檢驗的（認知、進化、心理動力學的解釋），是以不能客觀地測量
- There are a number of competing explanations and theories for human behaviour- there is not one accepted paradigm. 對人類行為有許多互相競争的解釋和理論，沒有一個公認的範式
Reporting Psychological Investigations 報告心理學調查
When psychologists publish research, it is validated by other psychologists (peer review) and becomes part of the permanent scientific record. Psychological reports are formal documents that are composed of a series of sections. Each section is governed by conventions which allow for the information to be conveyed clearly, precisely and effectively 當心理學家發表研究報告時，會得到其他心理學家的驗證（同行評審），并成為永久科學記錄的一部分。心理學報告是由一系列章節組成的正式檔案。每一節都有約定俗成的規定，使資訊能夠清晰、準确、有效地傳達出來:
- Title 标題: this will determine who reads the full report. It should be as concise as possible, yet at the same time it should be informative. Anyone reading the title should know exactly what the report is about. 這将決定誰會閱讀報告全文。它應該盡可能的簡潔，但同時也應該是資訊豐富的。任何閱讀标題的人都應該清楚地知道報告是關于什麼的。
- Abstract 摘要: a brief (150-200 words) summary of the report. If a psychologist finds the title to be useful the next step is for them to read the abstract. This is a concise summary of the study covering the aims/hypothesis, method/procedure, results and conclusions. 報告的簡短（150-200字）總結。如果心理學家認為标題有用，下一步就是讓他們閱讀摘要。這是對研究的簡明總結，包括目的/假設、方法/程式、結果和結論。
- Introduction 引言: designed to introduce the reader to the topic area and background to the study. This is made up of the relevant theories and past studies/research relevant to the research question. This allows the reader to place the study in context. This will then allow the researcher to introduce the actual study and to explain the ideas behind it before going into the specific research hypotheses. 旨在向讀者介紹主題領域和研究的背景。這是由與研究問題有關的相關理論和過去的研究/調查組成的。這使讀者能夠将研究置于背景之中。然後，研究者可以介紹實際的研究，并在進入具體的研究假設之前解釋其背後的想法。
- Method 方法: this section will describe how the study was conducted. It should have enough information to allow for replication. This serves two important functions. If the method cannot be replicated, then the findings cannot be checked to see if they are (1) reliable and (2) valid. This section should include the design, participants, apparatus/resources/materials, pilot study (if applicable) and procedure. 這一部分将描述研究是如何進行的。它應該有足夠的資訊以允許複制。這有兩個重要功能。如果該方法不能被複制，那麼就不能檢查研究結果是否（1）可靠和（2）有效。這一部分應該包括設計、參與者、儀器/資源/材料、試驗研究（如果适用）和程式。
- Results 結果: will report the findings of the study clearly and accurately. It may report the findings in words, or use visual interpretations of the data in the form of graphs, tables, and so on. It usually also includes the results of inferential analyses to determine whether results are significant. 将清楚而準确地報告研究結果。它可以用文字報告研究結果，或用圖形、表格等形式對資料進行直覺解釋。它通常還包括推理分析的結果，以确定結果是否有意義。
- Discussion 讨論: this section begins with a summary of the findings of the results before going on to offer explanations of the behaviours observed and may also consider the implications of the research and make suggestions for further research. 這一部分首先是對結果的總結，然後再對觀察到的行為進行解釋，也可以考慮研究的意義，并提出進一步研究的建議。
- References/Bibliography 參考文獻/書目: complete details of all research documents, journals, internet resources and books that were mentioned and used for additional background research. An example of how this might appear for a book used would be 提到的所有研究檔案、期刊、網際網路資源和書籍的完整細節，并用于補充背景研究。這方面的一個例子是，所使用的書籍可能是:
- Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behaviour. New York: MacMillan
- The format therefore is: Author (Year). Title of Book. Place: Publisher
- Appendices: comprised of a copy of all resources/materials used within the study, raw data and statistical calculations.
