[Abstract] Reading is one of the four important skills in English as a second or foreign language. It is also a skill that the students need to possess to support independent and self-directed learning. With the Information Age’s arrival, the English materials gradually change from paper materials to electronic ones. So, it becomes more and more important for English majors to speed up their reading in order to acquire as much information as possible. Thus, fostering a good English reading habit is essential for students. And being able to adopt different reading skills for different reading materials and purposes will also help the students read more effectively. The paper mainly concerns some English reading skills and discusses how to foster good English reading habits for college students.
[Key Words] characteristics; English reading; make notes; foster the English reading habits
【摘 要】閱讀是學習第二外語的必須掌握的四項基本技能之一，也是大學生用于自學須掌握的學習政策和技巧。随着資訊時代的到來，英語閱讀材料漸漸由傳統的紙質材料向電子讀物轉變，提高英語專業學生的閱讀速度盡可能多的擷取資訊變的越來越重要。是以學生有必要養成良好的英語閱讀習慣。學生能對不同的英語閱讀材料和不同的閱讀目的采用不同的閱讀方法，也将有助于他們更加有效的閱讀。本文主要叙述一些與大學生相關的英語閱讀技巧，并且讨論了如何養成良好的英語閱讀習慣。
【關鍵詞】 特點；英語閱讀；做筆記；培養英語閱讀習慣
1. Introduction
As reading is a part of academic literacy , English teachers usually have high expectations of a student's ability to cope with the demands of reading in English. Most college students wish to read more books. Reading is a way for college students to be more knowledgeable and successful. However, it is also an activity that many college students don’t enjoy very much. To succeed at schools, students need to possess a range of strategies and skills that support self-directed learning. Traditionally, many of these strategies and skills, some of which are highly generic, are not explicitly taught to students in the expectation that students either already have these skills, or will naturally acquire and develop these skills in their course of study. In order to improve the college students’ ability of English reading, we should answer the following questions: What are the English reading habits of students? How to become an effective reader? How to foster the English reading habits?
2. The characteristics of college students
With the development of society, science and technology develop at high speed and the competition in the society become sharp. Studies in the past have shown that the exam-oriented educational system promotes rote learning, and so that there needs to be a paradigm shift in how the college students view education and about the way they learn. Most college students read English materials only to pass exams and do not read for pleasure. However, the situation changes now. In order to become well-learnt people that the society needs, most college students long for extensive English reading, hoping to do preparation for the future job by this way. At the same time, the purposes of college students are to complete the studies and to obtain good results. In order to adapt to the demands of society and school, college students treat seeking knowledge as the first duty. They relate themselves to the society closely, hoping to enrich themselves through reading and become the learned persons who can face the challenges of the society. Therefore, the motivation of the majority of college students is definite . It is also obvious that the English reading materials gradually change from the paper materials to the electronic reading materials. The Internet that opens another window for the college students becomes the most convenient tool for college students to get information. Now the serious problem is that college students can read on some level, but many do not read effectively. In other words, many college students take it for granted that they could understand concepts or lessons by memorizing the English words and information rather than understanding the ideas that are expressed by the words. Consequently, information is retained mainly for the purpose of passing an exam; memorization is mistaken for learning.
3. Effective English reading strategies
Because a large portion of time at schools is spent on working with written sources, and because there are lots of English materials to be covered in a short amount of time, it is essential that reading behaviors of English majors should be both purposeful and efficient. Reading is talking and discussing with the reader himself, with the author and others. So as the readers, the first thing for the readers do is to accumulate information before reading. To ensure the good results of reading, the college students also need to develop effective reading strategies. Knowing how to read effectively involves accumulating background information before reading, selecting the English materials, understanding the structure of texts, how to read for different purposes, and how to reflect on your reading.
3.1 Accumulating background information before reading
“Reading is a receptive language process. It is a psycholinguistic process in that it starts with a linguistic surface representation encoded by a writer and ends with meanings that the reader constructs. There is thus an essential interaction between language and thought in reading. The writer encodes thoughts as language and the reader encodes the language to thought. ” Reading is not passive but active, and in fact an interactive process that has been recognized for some time in first or native language reading. [1] In the English reading, it is a process that needs not only the college students’ active participation, predication and information processing, but also their prior experience and background knowledge.
“Language is a part of culture and also the carrier and the container of culture. Language and culture is closely related, each influencing and shaping the other. To learn a foreign language implies to learn the culture in which it is spoken.”[2] “Reading is a kind of verbal communication. The readers communicate with the author(s) through the text. In this way, culture factors are inherent to the reading act and therefore influence the readers’ control over the input (Byra met al 1994)”. In the reading process, we cannot understand or interpret a text without the influence of our previous social experience and social context in which the reading takes place. The text we read, the topic we are interested in as well as the way we approach are culturally constructed (Kress, 1989).”[3]
The cultural factors play an important role in the process of English reading. Some cultural factors cause problems in reading directly so as to confuse college students and hinder their understanding. Other culture misunderstandings may dangle in their mind and prevent them from grasping the real meaning. [4] Culture and language are closely related to each other. As one way of communication, reading English materials reflect cultural differences through the language in written form. The readers should aware the cultural differences and try their best to accumulate background knowledge of all sorts. So the first piece of advice that will be given here is to do as much reading as the students can.
College students in the school can make use of the library resources to support their study and self-learning. The kinds of resources include English books, English journal articles, English magazines, etc., as well as a wide range of library services. Now thousands of books, magazines, journal articles and newspapers have electrical versions. It is no doubt that the college students’ task will be much easier if they know some websites they really want to find online.
3.2 Improving your English reading strategies
3.2.1 Choice reading
Choice reading is very important. Actually it is a process of selecting English materials. The reader should clearly recognize the classification of the English books and should certainly know which type of English book he is reading. It is best if the reader know his purpose of reading before reading starts. It means that the reader should turn his attention to practical goals. To receive the information, the reader can read not only the book title, the subtitle, the table of contents, but also the author's preface , the abstract introduction and the index. These are all the information that authors want to transmit to the reader. According to these clues, the college students can choose different types of English reading materials with the different demands. The college students should also be aware that different reading skills should be adopted when the English reading material are different.
3.2.2 How to select English sources
In order to get useful information, the college students had better answer the following two questions: How well those English sources meet the purpose of reading? How reliably the author presents those ideas and information in the book? The college students have better read things they are interested in so that the hard work required for comprehension will seem much more pleasurable ．Also ，the college students will be much more eager to understand what they are reading ，not only as a means to improve their reading comprehension ，but also as a means to better understand the interesting subject-matter. The process of selecting an English source includes examining its publisher, its reference and its author(s). Depending on the reader’s purpose of reading, it can also involve assessing timeliness . Some ways of selecting English sources are follows:
(i) Pay more attention to the timeliness
When a book is published, it always has a special social background. For example, if a reader wants to find some information about computers, he’d better check the materials published after 1940s.
(ii) Evaluating the publisher of an English book
Experienced readers may have some information about a book’s publisher. He may know the book that is published by an individual, an organization or government agency. Generally speaking, authors and publishers usually have a bias about a particular topic or issue. When the publisher is a scholarly or professional journal, the reader can often gain an understanding of what kinds of articles it publishes by looking over the contents of several issues of the journal or by reading a few of the articles found within it. It is very important for the English majors to know some famous publishers of the English-speaking countries.
（iii ）Evaluating the relevance of an English book
If a reader reads with a definite purpose, such as for a research project, he should have a look at the relevance firstly. Relevance is the extent to which a source provides information that person can use in evaluating the materials. There are several ways to determine whether the information presented in a scholarly or professional journal article is likely to be relevant to the reader’s reading purpose. There are two main strategies to help the reader to determine whether the article is relevant to readers’ needs and interests. An abstract—a brief description of the article and its results—often appears at the beginning of the article. When an abstract is not used, an article's introduction often provides similar information.
（iv ）Evaluating the author(s) of an English book
In order to get a better understanding of a book, the reader had better know the author(s) as much as possible. No matter what kind of book the reader chooses to read, it's important to know its author or authors. “Most scholarly or professional journal articles contain a short biographical note about the author of an article. If these biographical notes have not been included and the reader would like to learn more about them, he might consider searching for each author on the net. An increasing number of authors have created home pages on which they list information about themselves, such as their educational background, professional experience, and interests.”[5]
3.3 The process of English reading
If the readers face with a difficult and complex English text, or if they do not read effectively under normal circumstances , the readers can improve the way of reading by being more purposeful in the approach to reading.
Think of reading as a three-stage process that consists of:
(1) Plan for English reading
(2) English reading
(3) Reflection
3.3.1 Planning for English reading
Planning for English reading will help the reader to give the reading a focus. The reader can do preparation of reading by asking the following questions:
What does the reader wants to get out of reading this English text?
Are there any ideas that should be taken into English reading?
Why has this particular English text been selected?
Can the English text be subdivided into sections to read?
What has skim reading told the reader about the English text?
3.3.2 English reading
When a reader reads, the reader is looking at the communication of some kind of meaning in a structure. Since writers choose to organize material in a particular way, the reader needs to be able to see this structure in the text. “In texts ideas are built up from sentence to paragraph to whole text; ideas and concepts tend to be developed from parts or segments to a whole. The uses of reading focus attention on authors as readers, on the use of sources, and on the art of reading as a writer. ”[6] Understanding the structure of an English text will help the college students to know how to read it.
There are two main aspects of structure.
(1) The development of ideas in sentences and paragraphs; (eg, some authors show their main viewpoints in the first or last sentence)
(2) The development of the argument.
Once a focus has been developed for reading, how the college students read a particular English text depending on the nature and structure of the English text. The following are some useful guiding principles that the student had better keep in mind.
(1) Identify the starting point of the writer’s argument - usually this will be found in the first or second paragraph.
(2) Remember that English follow rules of grammar. By understanding the rules that govern speech ，the reader can eliminate some false conclusions and gain a better understanding of what is being said.
(3) See if the reader can detect any assumptions the writer has made, or the start of a particular method of argument.
(4) Identify important, or central, ideas (or any stated principles) in paragraphs as the reader reads them. (If there is more than one, try to work out which is the most important or central);
(5) Evaluate the evidence that has been presented in support of ideas or principles, and decide whether the evidence is relevant, persuasive, and convincing;
(6) Assess whether the conclusions are justified on the basis of the evidence that has been presented.
After the reader has read carefully through the English text in full, as suggested above, make some brief notes on:
(1) the understanding of the English text;
(2) the preliminary response to the ideas and arguments that have been presented.
In the process of reading an English essay, the college students should try to read without stopping when meeting unfamiliar words and phrases. The college students can underline the new words and look them up in a dictionary after finishing. If reading is often interrupted, the college students will find that it is very difficult to create an understanding of a whole text. Generally speaking, reading interruption has the opposite effect and even causes the reading to be fragmented. If the college students keep stopping, it might be difficult to create an overview of an article and to remember what they have read. “Actually, guessing the meaning based on the context is a better or more rewarding way. The reader can guess the meaning since any sentence; paragraph or even the whole passage is a unity.”[7] The meaning guessing strategy has been proved more effective than stopping the reader’s reading to look up individual words. When the college students try to figure out a word's meaning from the context, they can answer the following questions. What does the close meaning of the word? What is the function of the word in the sentence? Is the word nonsensical in the sentence? By decoding the meaning of words in context, the college students are more likely to increase their reading speed, comprehension, and vocabulary. The college students can also guess the meaning of words through the cause and effect relation. “Cause and effect relation is a common and logic relation that can provide us with the information of the meaning of the new words. A certain cause must lead to a certain effect and a certain result must be caused by a certain cause.” [8] During the process of reading, the college students may find some symbol words for the relation, such as because, as, since, therefore, as a result, etc. These words will help the college students to grasp the whole idea of the essay.
3.3.3 Reflection
Interacting with a piece of English reading material includes responding to the content of what the reader is reading. So while reading, the college students should not accept passively what an author says. Instead, they should ask questions, argue, comment, and match their experience and what they know against what the author is talking about. They should think about what they have read for a few minutes, and then consider the following:
(1) Are there any unanswered questions about the meaning of the English text? If so, they should go back and skim read and/or read specific sections again.
(2) Have they failed to recognize any assumption?
(3) Have they understood the section of the English text related?
(4) Have they made connections between the English text and other English materials they have read?
(5) What’s their opinion on the conclusion of the English book?
The questions above can help college students to work out what an English essay or story means to them. And the answers are also important here because a piece of English material never means precisely the same thing for every reader. The reader shapes his own comprehension by joining what he knows and what the author tells him and becomes a unique reader.
4. Ways of reading English texts
4.1 Skim reading & Scanning reading
What is skimming? Skimming is a reading technique that can help one to:
(1) read more quickly
(2) decide if the English text is interesting and whether the reader should read it in more details.
When college students should use skimming? This is the strategy that college students employ when they want to obtain a quick overview of a English text. “Skimming requires that the readers selectively omit some parts of the reading material. When readers skim, they read to get the main idea and a few, but not all of the details of an article or story.”[9] The term skimming is often confused with scanning. “Remember that skimming is used to obtain the gist (the overall sense) of a piece of text. Scanning is a reading skill to find a particular point of information quickly in a text. It is very useful for the readers to scan the text for particular bits of information they are searching for.”[10]
E.g. Use skimming to get the gist of a page of an English textbook to decide whether it is useful and should therefore be read more slowly and in more detail.
E.g. Use scanning to find a particular number in a telephone directory. Scanning is used to obtain specific information from a piece of English text.
Sometimes the college students can use both reading methods. They can skim a piece of English text to find out something interesting; they may wish to use scanning techniques to locate specific information. When the college students use skim reading method, they shouldn’t read the whole text word-for-word. The college students should use as many clues as possible to get some background information: eg pictures or images related to the topic; an eye-catching title, etc. With the eyes skim over the surface of the text, the college students must try their best to find out any clues that can help them to understand the main idea of the text, and then look out some key words. The strategies always employ when they want to obtain a quick overview of an English text can be listed below:
(1) reading the title, subtitle and subheading to find out what the English text is about.
(2) reading the first and last sentence of each paragraph.
(3) looking the illustration that may give the reader further information about the topic.
(4) skimming over the English text to take in key words.
(5) using the marker pen to mark out any items that the reader wants to re-read, or refer to later.
Take reading English magazines and English newspapers for example.
When reading an English newspaper, people typically only concentrate on the most interesting and glamorous parts of the newspaper. So the presses always use the eye-catching tile to attract the attention of the public. They will often ignore less interesting information that may be essential to a full understanding of a subject. It is typical that areas of useful information are padded out with large amounts of irrelevant waffle or with advertising. Newspapers tend to be arranged in sections. If one reads an English paper often, one can learn quickly which sections are useful and which ones one can skip altogether.
The most effective way of getting information from English magazines is to scan the contents tables or indexes and turn directly to interesting articles. If the reader finds an article useful, he may cut it out and file it in a folder specifically covering that sort of information. The reader builds up sets of related articles that may begin to explain the subject in this way.
4.2 In-depth English reading
This is the most essential of all reading skills. It involves reading an English text thoroughly in order to comprehend the ideas and arguments it contains. In-depth reading is consequently much slower than skim reading, and the college students may find that they needs to read certain sections of a difficult English text more than once. When reading in-depth it is useful to read the opening paragraphs and conclusion first. This will help the college students to digest the intention and conclusion of the writer prior to a closer reading of the text. It is useful to go back to the beginning, and read through the whole text and at the same time mark out some key words and phrases. Therefore, In-depth reading requires the college students to be attentive to the important ideas, facts, and data. By in-depth reading, the college students can understand the writer’s main ideas and arguments, and the overall message of the text well. The attitude of the college students should be active and critical.
“Reading, to those who have certain knowledge background, is not only a process of the mechanical and passive following of the writer’s thoughts but also a process of application of his initiative and creativeness to the reading material. On the one hand, he will, through comprehensive means, seek to obtain the objective information conveyed literally; on the other hand, he will also apply his own emotions, wishes and moral and value standards to the material and reach his own judgment, evaluation and appreciation of it.” [11]
4.2.1 Active English reading
When the college students are reading an English document in detail, it is helpful if they highlight, underline and annotate the important information on the materials. This action will help them to memorize the information and to review important points later. It also helps to keep their mind focused on the English material and stop it from wandering. The college students should be active in connecting what they have already known to what they encounter as readers. If the college students find that active reading helps, then it may be worth photocopying some rare English information. They can then read and mark the photocopies. If the college students are worried about destroying the English material, they can ask themselves how much their investment of time is worth. If the benefit they get by active reading reasonably exceeds the value of the book, then the book is disposable. It means that the college students can take notes on the English book arbitrarily.
4.2.2 Critical English reading
“Critical reading is a further dimension of in-depth reading. Critical reading requires reading skills beyond the ‘thorough comprehension’ stage of reading. It is expected on the part of student to arrive at a critical judgment of the author’s discourse as they would in their own language.” [12] Reading an English text critically means that the college students do not accept the whole value of what they are reading. This does not necessarily mean that the college students should find fault with a text, but rather that they should question and judge the merit and worth of the information it contains. The college students should remember that the purpose of r English reading is to analyze and solve problems and make a valuable comment of the English text by absorbing information or using received information. Thus, critical English reading proves to be quite helpful. Critical English reading involves a number of inter-related processes. They are interpretation, analysis and evaluation.
（i ）Interpretation
“Readers can take the responsibility for determining the meaning of the text. They can work as though they were doing something other than finding ideas already there on the page and they can be guided by their own impressions or questions as they read”.[13] When the college students read critically for interpretation, they read to determine what conclusions could be drawn about the various messages the English text contains. Sometimes, there is more than one possible interpretation, and in such cases it is possible that the reading may be directed at the best or close meaning. Interpreting an English text will also frequently involve the process of meaning guessing.
（ii ）Analysis
This is the process by which the reader examines the way the ideas and messages in an English text fit together to create the overall meaning while English reading. The college students should focus on the following points:
(1) identifying assumptions (the hidden values that underlie what a writer is saying )
(2) the structure of the argument (the development and sequence of ideas, the relationship between ideas, whether the argument is inductive or deductive);
(3) the relationship between evidence/data and argument ( whether the evidence supports and illustrates the argument, and whether it supports any conclusions that are drawn).
（iii ）Evaluation
This is a process by which the reader establishes the worth or merit of an English text. Evaluation is a higher order process that involves all of the other processes described above. When the college students evaluate an English text, they should attempt to look at the ideas and messages in a broader context. The college students might say that this is a good argument, but is it worth anything, or does it has any merits? The college students would then use their knowledge of the subject or field, or of competing arguments, to establish the merit or worth of the argument of analysis. “Evaluation: That is, according to the reader’s own measure of value, to evaluate the writer’s idea, position and their truthfulness and correctness.”[14]
5. How to make notes in the process of English reading
Purchasing an English book means having an English book, but it doesn’t mean that the English book really belongs to the buyer. The best way of making a book become a part of a student is to take notes. Taking notes is one of the main activities of being a good reader. A good reader can work in his own personal ways to make the core of an English book become a part of himself. Making notes is hard work, but it serves all these purposes:
(1) Focusing the reader’s attention. Making notes stops the reader’s mind from wandering as the reader reads.
(2) Making sense. Writing notes forces the reader to seek out some sense in the words in the English text. It also helps the reader to formulate ideas from the English text in ways that make sense to the reader.
(3) Forming an external memory. The reader’s notes act as a kind of extension to the memory capacity of the reader’s mind. They give the reader rapid access back to the knowledge he has been accumulating.
(4) Focusing on the conjunction. A conjunction signals the way the writer wants the reader to relate what is about to be said to what has been said before.[15]
(5) Pulling the course together. As the reader studies a course, the reader’s mind becomes cluttered with disconnected bits and pieces.
Therefore, the college students should know how to take notes while they are reading an English material. Take notes only on English material that is worthwhile and reliable, and make sure that notes are accurate. That does not mean that everything should be taken down everything from the source word for word, although sometimes an especially well-worded or stimulating quotation will be recorded. It is usually best to paraphrase as much as possible, in order to reduce college students’ dependence on the source and to encourage their own analysis of the English reading material. However, even when paraphrasing, make sure to preserve the original intent of the reader’s source, and record page numbers, since the college students may wish to cite the source later, even if they do not quote directly. Notes that are the summary of a section of the English course help the college students to create order. These notes also make the college students’ new ideas less confused and more useable. It is found that college students at different proficiency have different preference for taking notes. And there are several ways of taking notes:
(1) drawing lines;
(2) marking the most important statement and the paragraph of an English book with asterisks .
(3) writing down other page numbers in the blank, and emphasizing the same opinion that the author has mentioned in other parts .
(4) circling the key words or the sentence;
(5) using a small notebook for each essay;
(6) using file cards and allowing one note per card;
(7) keeping reader’s notes on separate cards from relying too heavily on one source; note cards are also a flexible way of recording information because they can be easily sorted.
(8) identifying the source by a short name, and noting the page number on each card.
6. How to foster the English reading habits
When seeking to improve any skill ，it is important to have a positive attitude ，to set clear goals ，and to practice regularly. These elements are also important for the college students to foster their ability of English reading. There are some useful principles for the college students to promote their ability of English reading. To foster personal English reading habits, it is better use the following ways:
(1) Having an English book around oneself. Don’t go anywhere without English reading materials. Keep English magazines or short English stories in one’s bathroom. Always have something in one’s bags to read. Keep an English book by one’s bed. Arrange the books on the shelf that are easy to reach. Having things available makes it easier for one to steal otherwise lost moments.
(2) Setting an English reading goal. Determine how much time one wants to spend on English reading, or how many English books one wants to read over time. The reader’s goal might be an English book per month, several English articles per week, or to read 30 minutes per day. When setting a goal or a target English book ，it is important to choose something that will challenge the reader but will not be so difficult as to discourage him ．The reader had better read English books within their comprehension level at the beginning. This will give the reader a solid foundation to build his confidence upon.
(3) Keeping a list. Make a list of English books one want to read in the future. Ask one’s friends and colleagues about what they are reading. Watch for recommendations in the English newspaper and English magazines. Once one starts looking for good English books, he will find them everywhere. By knowing what great stuff one want to read, one will reinforce one’s English reading habit.
(4) Listening when one can’t read. There are great English audio versions of all sorts of books. Listening to radio also gives one the experience, ideas, and imagination that reading an English book do.
(5) Visiting the library or bookstore often. If the reader has his own list, he will have some ideas of what he is looking for when he walk in. If not, he can browse in the library or bookstore. It is also a great way for the reader to find something interesting or new English books.
(6) Turning off the television. Many people say they just don’t have enough time. Television is one of the major time consumers. Make one’s television watching more conscious and less habitual. There is nothing wrong with one who watches his favorite TV programmes. Actually, the time gets lost when one turns the TV on and scans to find “something to watch.”
(7) Keeping a log. Keep a list of the English books one have read, or keep track of how much time one read each day.
Practice makes perfect. The differences between the skilled and unskilled college students are their ability of English reading and their speed of English reading. There is no shortcut to foster the English reading habits except practicing again and again. It will be meaningless if college students don’t put theory into practice.
7. Conclusion
The college students have the expectation of improving their English reading ability, so it’s helpful for them to know some English reading skills. These skills can assist in the promotion of self-study and make college students more resourceful. Improving one’s English reading skill will not be easy, but it is possible. The college students had better keep a positive attitude, set realistic goals, and not have the expectation of improving greatly overnight. Altogether, knowing some English reading strategies, the college students may change their attitude towards the English reading materials and really enjoy the pleasures of English reading.
Bibliography
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[12] Dilian He Nicholson. The Reading Approach & Second Language Learning [J]. 山東教育學院學報 ,2004,1. P15
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[15] 郭才鋒. Conjunction and Teaching Reading skills in English [J]. 福
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