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There are more than 100 ethnic groups in Indonesia, of which the majority ethnic group is the Javanese, accounting for 40% of the country's population. In addition, Indonesia also has several large ethnic groups such as Sunda, Madura and Malay. However, apart from the Papuans, all ethnic groups in Indonesia are collectively referred to as the Indonesian nation. Whether Javanese or other ethnic groups, they are Malays in the broad sense and speak the languages of the Malay-Polynesian language family of Austronesians.
The word "Indonesia" is of Latin or Greek origin and is a combination of the words "India" and "Nicaea". Nicaea means archipelago, Indonesia is the Indies, which was called the "East Indies" by Westerners in the old days to distinguish the "West Indies" of Central America. In fact, what Europeans call Insulinde, the Southeast Asian archipelago including the southern part of the Malay Peninsula, is the same geographical concept as Indonesia, which is what we Chinese call the South Sea.
The ancestors of the Indonesians came from the Indochina Peninsula in the north, and they migrated to the Southeast Asian archipelago in batches BC. After AD, with the development of maritime trade, some Indians subsequently moved in. Because the Indian production technology and culture were relatively advanced, the Indonesian aristocracy combined with the Indian immigrant upper class and ruled in an Indianized way of organization, so that most Indonesians accepted Indian culture such as Sanskrit, Brahmanism and Buddhism. There are exceptions, however, and Javanese people still retain their own individual culture.
According to Chinese history books, in the 4th and 7th centuries, two relatively large Indianized Malay kingdoms appeared in Sumatra - Morayu and Sri Buddha, and Sri Buddha died in Palembang, which believed in Buddhism and was also called Samriviya in Chinese history books. After that, Sri Buddha died and annexed Mora Yu. With the opening of the Malacca route, Sri Buddha gained great wealth in maritime trade and continued to expand. In the 10th century, Sri Buddha became the most powerful state around the Strait of Malacca, once encompassing the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and western Java.
Java is divided into three parts: eastern, central and western, the western part has long been under the control of Sri Buddha, and the inhabitants are Sundanese, who speak Suendane, and are relatively poor; The central and eastern parts of the country are fertile and agricultural, and the inhabitants are Javanese-speaking Javanese.
In the 4th century, Java established several emirates of varying lengths, the first being the Taluma Kingdom in West Java. The kingdom of Taluma was destroyed by Sri Buddha in 669, and the kingdoms of Sunda and Galu were born in it, which were later destroyed by Banten and Mataram, respectively.
Northern Central Java, due to its development of maritime trade and agriculture, gave rise to a state of Holling in the 7th century, which once controlled many tribes and small states in Central Java and East Java. The state of Jiling had envoys with the Tang Dynasty, and the New Book of Tang recorded, "Jiling took a woman as its king, and his orders were serious, and he did not forget it."
In 750, the Charentra dynasty in central Java destroyed the kingdom of Horling. The Charentra Dynasty was founded by the Prince of Funan, who was in exile here, and believed in Vajra Buddhism, and the name of the country was "Mountain Emperor". At the end of the 8th century, the kingdom of Charentra sent troops to attack Shuizhenla in revenge, capturing and imprisoning King Jayavarman II of Shuizhenla, and also making Luchenla a vassal state. Later, Jayavarman II was released back as a vassal of the Charentra dynasty and established the Khmer Empire of Angkor.
The kingdom of Charentira and Sri Buddha both believed in Buddhism, so they had a good relationship. In the mid-9th century, the Charentra dynasty was overthrown by the local Hindu Shiva forces and established the Mataram Kingdom. Interestingly, Prince Charentra ran to Palembang and inherited the throne of Sri Buddha. Fearing reprisals for Sri Buddha's death, Mataram had to move the capital to East Java.
After 990, Sri Buddha died and fought Mataram for hegemony. First, Mataram gained the upper hand and at one point attacked Palembang. Houmari Revival Mataram and in the early 11th century united with other tribes to capture the capital of Mataram and plunge it into anarchy.
However, at this time, the Chola kingdom from the Indian peninsula raided Sri Buddha, destroying Palembang and throwing it into chaos. Sri Buddha had to reconcile with Mataran, and Mataram prince Ellanga took the opportunity to restore the kingdom, reunify East Java, and establish the Guriban dynasty. After Chola withdrew from the army, the capital Luo Yu of Sri Buddha died and moved to the monument, and since then it has declined.
In the late 11th century, the Mataram kingdom split into the western kingdom of Gyali and the eastern kingdom of Rongyalu, ruled by two princes. Later, the Kingdom of Ikari merged with the Kingdom of Rongyalu, and after the unification of the country, the economy developed, and peaceful relations with Sri Buddha were maintained.
However, in 1222, a serf revolt broke out in the kingdom of Yili, and the victory was usurped by the magistrate and pirate Geng Anlu, establishing the new Koshari dynasty. The Neo-Koshari dynasty expanded abroad, conquering Java and the southern part of the Malay Peninsula by the end of the 13th century, and establishing the city of Singapore, which for a time extended its power to Kalimantan, Bali, and the Moluccas.
In addition, the New Koshari dynasty also occupied Morayu in Sumatra, further shrinking the kingdom of Sri Buddha, leaving only the area around Palembang. Without the areas on both sides of the Strait of Malacca, Sri Buddha, a nation based on trade, went into complete decline.
While the New Keshari Dynasty was actively expanding abroad, on the one hand, the king of Qieli, Chayegawang, was actively preparing to restore the country, and on the other hand, the Yuan Dynasty sent people to persuade him to surrender. The last king of the new Koshari dynasty, Gerdanakala, was very confident, refused the persuasion of Kublai Khan, the ancestor of the Yuan dynasty, and insulted the Yuan envoy. As a result, before the Yuan Dynasty could intervene, in 1292, the king of the Kingdom of Guiri, Chaye Gawang, stabbed to death Gerdanakala, overthrew the New Koshari dynasty, and regained power.
The Yuan dynasty was angry, and the consequences were serious. In 1293, 20,000 yuan troops attacked Java. However, the son-in-law of the late king of the New Koshari dynasty, Weichaye, was very scheming, and first deceived the Yuan army and overthrew Chayegawang by the hands of the Yuan army. Then, Vechaye took advantage of the fact that the Yuan army was unprepared to launch a surprise attack and drove the Yuan army out of Java.
After the withdrawal of the Yuan army, Vechaye first established the most powerful Majapahit dynasty in Indonesian history, with Majapahit as its capital. Majapahit built a sophisticated water conservancy system in East Java, agriculture, handicrafts, transportation, and foreign trade were fully developed, and the towns were prosperous and stronger.
In 1331, Majapahit established a strong centralized power and began a major expansion abroad. Majapahit conquered Bali to the east, Kalimantan and the southern part of the Malay Peninsula to the north, and most of Sri Buddha to the west, becoming the hegemon of the region for a time, controlling the archipelago's maritime trade.
According to the Java Chronicle, the Majapahit ruled the entire Sunda Islands and the Malay Peninsula in the 14th century. In the 20th century, Indonesian nationalists saw Majapahit as the precursor of Indonesia before the Dutch unified the archipelago. However, in fact, the effective rule area of Majapahit is only 2/3 of Java, Madura Island and Bali, and the rest are vassal states, representing their sphere of influence, and the vassal states within the scope recognize the supremacy of Majapahit.
The Majapahit attacked Sri Buddha several times, causing many of its former vassal states to change their banners, and the royal family of Sri Buddha was so frightened that they had to flee to the mountains of western Sumatra to avoid trouble, they were the Minangkabao people.
However, Sri Buddha was a coalition government consisting of many small states. Although the royal family of Sri Buddha was defeated, the prince of Palembang, Bari Missoula, did not obey Majapahit and refused to pay taxes. So, at the end of the 14th century, Majapahit sent troops to level Palembang. Bairimisura fled to the Malay Peninsula and eventually founded a small city-state of Malacca.
After Barimisura left, Palembang fell into chaos. More than 1,000 local Chinese supported Cantonese Liang Daoming as their leader and established the New Srivijaya League. The new Srivijaya later returned to the Shun Ming Dynasty and became the jurisdiction of Palembang Xuanweisi.
After the 15th century, Majapahit went into decline. In 1403, Malacca was upgraded from a small city-state to a kingdom after the canonization of the Ming Dynasty, and with the advantages of its geographical location and the protection of the Ming Dynasty, it quickly developed by relying on the wealth accumulated by maritime trade. By the second half of the 15th century, the rule of the Malacca Kingdom had spread to most of the Malay Peninsula, the Riau Islands, and the central and eastern parts of Sumatra, becoming a veritable maritime hegemon in Southeast Asia.
By this time, Islam introduced in the 13th century had taken root in the Sultanate of Aceh in western Sumatra, which was founded by the exiled Champa royal family. In the face of the growing Muslim forces, for a longer term development, the king of Malacca married the princess of the Sultanate of Aceh, converted to Islam, and the monarch also used the title of sultan, evolving into the Sultanate of Malacca.
Malacca's conversion to Islam greatly contributed to the widespread spread of Islam. Islam originated in Malacca and spread to the Malay Peninsula and the east coast of Sumatra. Malacca also had many Javanese, through whom Islam was transmitted to various ports in Java, forming a secondary transmission center. Eventually, merchants from these ports spread Islam throughout the Southeast Asian archipelago.
In the process of spreading Islam, Indonesia formed a large number of sultanates. In addition to Malacca, the more famous ones are Tammu in East Java, Banten in West Java, Aceh in Sumatra, Brunei and Marchan in Kalimantan, and Makassar in Makassar, Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and so on. Its Middle Eastern Javanese destroyed Majapahit in 1478 and became the most dominant state in Java.
With the implementation of the Ming Dynasty's sea ban policy, Malacca's glory was no longer there, and the footsteps of Europeans approached. At the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese learned from India that the spice that enriched Muslims came from the Southeast Asian archipelago. Portugal decided to wrest control of the spice trade from the Muslims. In 1511, the Portuguese attacked Malacca for the second time, eventually capturing it, and the Sultanate of Malacca was destroyed, and its royal family fled to establish the Sultanates of Johor and Perak.
Subsequently, the Portuguese infiltrated Indonesia from Malacca as a base. In 1512, Portugal landed in the Moluccas, today's Maluku Islands, which had the richest variety and production of spices, so it was called the "Spice Islands". Portugal signed an agreement with the two sultans of Ternate and Tidore and stationed on Ambon Island, taking advantage of the contradictions between them to monopolize the spice trade. In addition, Portugal established a colony on the island of Timor because of the sandalwood business.
However, Portugal's use of force to impose Christianity was opposed by the locals. Moreover, after Portugal took control of Malacca, local Muslim merchants thought: can't I afford to provoke me? As a result, they deliberately avoided Malacca, transferred trade to other ports, and formed their own commercial centers in the various sultanates, which not only further spread Islam, but also promoted the development of the major sultanates. Among them, the Sultanate of Banten became the center of commodity distribution in the countries of the South Seas, because the ships were strong and the fortifications were strong, and the Portuguese could not lower their mouths at all. Thus, Portugal's attempt to monopolize Asian trade ultimately failed.
In 1521, after Magellan discovered the Philippines, Spanish forces also invaded the "Spice Islands" to compete with Portugal. Portugal then gave Spain a payment to withdraw from the archipelago. However, in 1580, Spain annexed Portugal, which dealt a great blow to Portugal.
Subsequently, in the war of independence against Spain, the Portuguese of the archipelago were driven out by the Dutch, and in 1605 and 1608 Ambon and Banda fell to the Dutch. In order to squeeze out the power of Spain and Portugal, the Netherlands also established the United East India Company in 1602. In 1641, the Dutch captured Malacca, which had been blockaded for 8 years, and the Portuguese retained only part of the island of Timor. At the same time, in order to deal with British competition, the Dutch also established a Batavia stronghold in Jakarta, a vassal of Banten, which is the old name of Jakarta, and its name comes from the ancestors of the Dutch, the Germanic Batawi.
Before the Dutch capture of Malacca, the Sultanate of Indonesia also achieved unprecedented development, the most powerful of which were two, one was the Sultanate of Aceh and the other was the Sultanate of Post-Mataram. Aceh reached its peak under the reign of Skandar Muda, controlling the west and northeastern coasts of Sumatra and much of the Malay Peninsula. After Mataram Sultan Agung launched a jihad, carried out a series of expansions, captured Tuban, Madura, Surabaya, and gained suzerainty over Cirebon, conquering all of eastern Java.
However, Mataram failed to besiege the Dutch city of Batavia and did not submit to Bali in eastern Java. Therefore, Bali still retains Hindu customs and has become a sanctuary for Hindus.
Unlike Portugal and Spain, the Netherlands did not oppose Islam nor spread Christianity, and at first their goals were entirely commercial. Therefore, the Netherlands signed a patent distribution agreement with the local sultan to establish a trade monopoly and exclude competitors.
However, the Dutch East India Company later failed to monopolize the spice trade. As a result, the Dutch East India Company began to plunder land or make agreements with local monarchs to force the cultivation of the single cash crop needed by Europe in some areas.
In 1656, the Dutch destroyed the Sultanate of Ternate and took control of the Maluku Islands. In 1668, the Dutch destroyed the Sultanate of Makassar. In 1662, the Minangbao people of Sumatra revolted against Aceh, and they sought the help of the Dutch, and the Dutch were able to enter Padang. In 1674, a large-scale rebellion broke out in Java, and the Sultan asked the Dutch for help in suppressing it. As compensation for military expenses, in 1677 the Dutch acquired two plots of land in Bryangan and the port of Semarang. In 1684, when civil strife broke out in Banten, the Dutch installed his cronies on the throne, and Banten lost his independence.
By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch had become the hegemon of Java, and the Sultan of Mataram was only their servant. The Javanese could not accept such a situation, and the king was constantly quarreling internally, causing a rebellion. The Dutch took the opportunity to intervene, eventually leading to the Javanese Civil War.
The Dutch gained a lot of land in the Javanese Civil War. In 1704-1707, Java ceded Cirebon and Madura to the Dutch. In 1740, the Dutch also carried out the Batavia Massacre, in which 5,000 Chinese were killed. The survivors fled north, and the Dutch gained access to the northern coast and easternmost region of Java in 1743.
After that, the Sultan of Mataram moved the capital to Surakalta. The Javanese royal family is very disunited, no matter how small the country is, it still can't stop the division, and it has a fight with the Zhou royal family during the Warring States period. After the War of the Succession of 1749-1757, Mataram was divided into three states, one was the Surakalta, one was the Yogyakarta Sultanate, and the last was the Manggunigara Sultanate whose capital was also in Surakalta.
At the end of the 18th century, Dutch maritime supremacy had been replaced by Britain, and coupled with the decline of the spice trade, the profits of the Dutch East India Company were greatly reduced, but military and administrative expenses were increasing, and they were on the verge of bankruptcy. At the same time, Dutch rule in the archipelago did not change much for the local natives, as they were limited to dealing with local monarchs. However, the exploitation of coffee plantation farmers in the Java Territory by the Netherlands greatly provoked contradictions.
In 1795, France invaded the Netherlands and established the French protectorate of the Batavian Republic. The Dutch rulers, who had fled to England, feared falling into French hands in the Indonesian colonies, so they handed over the Dutch East India Company to the British. Thus, the British began to conquer Indonesia. In 1799, the Dutch East India Company was dissolved. In 1811, the British occupied a large area of Java, which was administered by Raffles as governor. However, after the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, the British returned the East India Company and its colonies to the Dutch, and the Dutch restored the colonial regime of Batavia.
However, Britain and the Netherlands have since engaged in a dispute in the Strait of Malacca region. In 1818, the British captured Malacca from the Dutch. In order to avoid the escalation of the conflict, the two sides signed the London Agreement in 1824, dividing their respective spheres of influence: Britain controlled the northern part of the strait, and the Dutch controlled the southern part of the strait; Britain gave Bengkulu to the Netherlands, which recognized British ownership of Malacca.
In 1825, when war broke out again in Java, a local prince ostracized foreigners in the name of defending Islam, and the Chinese were also attacked and massacred. So, the Dutch sent troops to suppress it. In 1830, the Dutch annexed large territories of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta and the Surakalta State, but retained the Javanese nobility. Although land was won, it cost a lot of financial resources and the financial situation deteriorated sharply.
In 1830, in order to make up for the financial deficit, the Dutch implemented a new forced cultivation system in Java, that is, the production of cash crops such as sugar cane, indigo, and coffee was directly controlled by the colonial authorities, and all their products were sold by the Dutch finance. At the same time, the Netherlands hired some Javanese agents to manage the farmers. Therefore, the peasants are stripped of two layers of skin and brutally exploited. However, this cultivation system brought wealth to the Dutch colonial authorities and the suzerainty.
However, in the middle and late 19th century, with the development of the industrial revolution, Dutch industry achieved great development, and the domestic industrial bourgeoisie strongly demanded that Indonesia be used as a raw material production area and commodity dumping market. Thus, in 1870, the Netherlands abolished forced cultivation in Indonesia, with the exception of coffee, which was not abolished until 1917. Subsequently, the Netherlands passed a land law that allowed Dutch private capitalists to develop private plantations such as sugar cane and rubber. As a result, a large amount of Indonesian commune land was leased indefinitely to Dutch private companies.
In the mid-19th century, British expansion in northern Borneo also aroused the enthusiasm of the Dutch. As early as the 18th century, the Dutch had been eyeing the Chinese company in northern Pontianak, the Lanfang Company, and did not hesitate to send troops to intervene in a vain attempt to conquer it. However, in 1777, the Lanfang Company became the "Lanfang Grand Unified Republic", and under the pretext of the authority of the Qing Dynasty, the Dutch did not dare to act rashly. By the late 19th century, the Qing Dynasty had decayed and had no time to care about Nanyang. In 1884-1885, the Netherlands took advantage of the Sino-French War to invade and annex the Republic of Lanfang. However, the Dutch feared a reaction from the Qing dynasty, and the fact that Lanfang was annexed was officially announced only in 1912.
In 1858, the Dutch took control of the northeastern coast of Sumatra and suppressed the Bardock revolt. In 1863, the Netherlands annexed the Sultanate of Marchen. In 1873, with British support, the Netherlands attempted to annex the Sultanate of Aceh. However, strong resistance led to a full-scale guerrilla war, which became the longest war in Dutch colonial history. It was not until 1913 that the Dutch completely conquered Aceh. In 1885, the Netherlands also divided the island of New Guinea with Germany and the United Kingdom, gaining sovereignty over West New Guinea.
The Dutch tried to reduce the territory of the unoccupied Indonesian islands, even taking drastic military action. By 1914, except for Sarawak and North Borneo in the north of Kalimantan, which belonged to Britain, the eastern part of the island of New Guinea was divided between Britain and Germany, most of Timor Island belonged to Portugal, and the Indonesian archipelago became all Dutch colonies, laying the foundation for today's Indonesia.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Indonesian nationalism germinated in the commercial wars between Muslim merchants and Chinese. Marginalized by the Chinese in commercial competition, they founded the Muslim League in 1911, which later developed into a mass movement, but was weak in the struggle against the colonial authorities. In 1920, the PKI was founded, but its uprising was suppressed by the Dutch authorities.
So, due to the failure of the above two, Sukarno founded the Indonesian National Party in 1927. The Indonesian National Party adopted a red and white flag, which dates back to the Majapahit dynasty and later became the Indonesian flag. The Indonesian National Party also advocates Indonesian as a Chinese. In 1933, Sukarno and other leaders were arrested by the Dutch colonial authorities and not released until 1942, when the Japanese arrived.
In March 1942, Japan occupied Java and then controlled most of Indonesia, except for southern West New Guinea. Indonesians felt that Japan was only here to extract resources, so resistance was not strong, and Indonesian nationalists represented by Sukarno even cooperated with the Japanese. In return, Japan promised Indonesian independence in 1944. Before independence, Sukarno adopted the Five Principles of Nationhood, the main points of which were: nationalism, internationalism, democracy, socialism, and belief in Shinto. In a word, the purpose of freedom of belief in Indonesia is to rule out the possibility of establishing an Islamic State.
On August 17, 1945, after the defeat of Japan, the Republic of Indonesia became independent. It was a single, centralized state, and Sukarno was the first president. However, the Netherlands did not admit that in 1945 the Netherlands returned to Batavia and fought the new Republic of Indonesia for four years.
Taking advantage of various contradictions within Indonesia, the Netherlands proposed the establishment of an autonomous republic of Indonesia within the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1946. Indonesia flatly refused, and demanded that the Netherlands recognize the status of the Republic of Indonesia. So with the mediation of the United States, the United States of Indonesia was established in 1947, of which the Republic of Indonesia was only one of the constituent units. However, the agreement was opposed by all Indonesian parties and was not implemented.
In 1947-1948, the Netherlands launched two military strikes against Indonesia, and the Republic of Indonesia was about to collapse. However, under pressure from the United States, the Netherlands was forced to submit. In 1949, the Hague Agreement was signed and the United States of Indonesia was established, consisting of 16 states, of which the Republic of Indonesia was only one of them. The United States of Indonesia remains a member of the Netherlands-India Federation of little practical significance. West New Guinea is temporarily governed by the Netherlands.
But this United States was short-lived, it was only Indonesia in the eyes of the Dutch and even Americans, not Indonesia in the eyes of Indonesian nationalists, and various separatist activities emerged as a result. In August 1950, a unified Republic of Indonesia was established and the federalist system ended and was replaced by a centralized and parliamentary system.
Indonesia's post-independence foreign policy was pro-Western, and after the Bandung Conference in 1955, it adopted anti-colonial policies and expelled all Dutch Indonesians. Indonesia considered itself the legitimate successor of the Dutch colonists, which should include West New Guinea.
In 1962, the conflict between Indonesia and the Netherlands was on the verge of eruption. Under pressure from the United States, the Netherlands was forced to make concessions. In 1963, Indonesia took over West New Guinea and a referendum was held in 1969. But the referendum was not held and was replaced by the Free Choice Treaty. Eventually, Papuan tribal chiefs agreed to belong to Indonesia. The eastern part of the island was formed in Papua New Guinea in 1975. Indonesia's subsequent immigration policies left the West Papuan tribe in the minority, leading to growing calls for independence after the 90s.
Encouraged by the success of West New Guinea, Indonesia has grown stronger. Originally, Britain had already demarcated the island of Kalimantan with the Netherlands, which would later become the dividing line between Malaysia and Indonesia. But when Brunei, Sarawak and Sabah in northern Kalimantan wanted to join Malaysia, Indonesia strongly opposed and intervened.
Indonesia's purpose is twofold: to prevent the emergence of a Chinese-Singaporean-led state, and to establish a pro-Indonesian regime in northern Kalimantan in preparation for its eventual integration. However, Indonesia's attempt was opposed by Southeast Asian countries and eventually failed to be suppressed by the British. In 1965, Indonesia even withdrew from the United Nations for a time, and the whole country was on the verge of collapse.
In addition to this, Indonesia has made territorial claims to East Timor. East Timor was originally a Portuguese colony, but in 1974, the Portuguese revolution broke out and abandoned the colony. It stands to reason that East Timor should be independent. However, there was a split within East Timor, with those in favour of independence and those in favour of continued relations with Portugal. In 1975, civil war broke out in East Timor, and the victorious side declared independence.
At this time, Indonesia sent troops to invade East Timor, which in 1976 became an Indonesian province, an annexation never recognized by the United Nations. In order to eliminate the East Timorese resistance, Indonesia used brutal methods such as massacre and exile, and from 1976 to 1988, more than 200,000 people died in East Timor due to war and starvation.
But East Timor did not give up its quest for independence, and under pressure from the United Nations, Indonesia had to allow East Timor to hold an independence referendum in 1999, and three quarters of the population was in favor of independence. In 2001, following a United Nations transition period, East Timor officially declared independence.
Indonesia's ideal
However, apart from independent East Timor and West New Guinea, Indonesia still faces many problems, the most difficult of which is the Acehnese. The Acehnese of Sumatra, descended from the Chams, have never recognized the Dutch authorities, nor have they recognized Indonesia. In 1961, the Aceh Special Autonomous Region was established, and in 1976, the Free Aceh Movement took place. Since 1998, a new generation of freemen has been engaged in armed struggle, and "wildfires are inexhaustible, and spring breezes blow again."
In 1965, the Suharto Purge in Indonesia killed more than 500,000 people. In 1967, Indonesia and Malaysia reconciled with the establishment of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. After that, Indonesia's policy remained pro-Western. But there were many problems, authoritarianism, corruption, and embezzlement prevailed, and in the seventies and eighties there were many riots triggered by protests by students and Muslims. In 1997, Indonesia was hit hard by the Asian financial crisis, which triggered large-scale riots in 1998, affecting the Chinese and killing and injuring hundreds of thousands.
Indonesia was on the right track in 2001 when Megawati, daughter of Sukarno, an advocate of secular secularism, came to power.
The majority ethnic group in Indonesia is the Javanese, but the Chinese and language is Indonesian, that is, Indonesianized Malay. The Indonesian nation has two traditions, one is Malay liberalism, advocating economic liberalization and political openness; One is the authoritarian attitude of the Javanese, manifested in centralization, and even with a certain degree of great-power chauvinism. Therefore, these two traditions still have a great influence on all aspects of Indonesia.
With an area of 1.9 million square kilometers and a population of 260 million, Indonesia is the largest archipelago country in the world. At the same time, Indonesia has more than 100 ethnic groups and more than 200 languages, and the distribution of each island is different, very different and extremely complex. In addition, there are many religions such as Islam, Christianity, and animism. Therefore, Indonesia's internal stability and development is itself a great challenge.
Due to natural conditions, Indonesia has many volcanoes, earthquakes, mountains, hills, plains, and abundant precipitation, but most of the islands are not fertile and cannot be self-sufficient in food. However, Indonesia is rich in cash crops, rich in mineral resources, vast sea areas, superior geographical location, excellent ports, rich in natural scenery and human resources, which is very suitable for the development of fishery, industry and commerce and tourism. It's just that whether it can succeed depends entirely on the play of people.
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